Showing papers in "Annual Review of Psychology in 2011"

Thirty years and counting: Finding meaning in the N400 component of the event related brain potential (ERP)

Abstract: We review the discovery, characterization, and evolving use of the N400, an event-related brain potential response linked to meaning processing. We describe the elicitation of N400s by an impressive range of stimulus types—including written, spoken, and signed words or pseudowords; drawings, photos, and videos of faces, objects, and actions; sounds; and mathematical symbols—and outline the sensitivity of N400 amplitude (as its latency is remarkably constant) to linguistic and nonlinguistic manipulations. We emphasize the effectiveness of the N400 as a dependent variable for examining almost every aspect of language processing and highlight its expanding use to probe semantic memory and to determine how the neurocognitive system dynamically and flexibly uses bottom-up and top-down information to make sense of the world. We conclude with different theories of the N400’s functional significance and offer an N400-inspired reconceptualization of how meaning processing might unfold.

Heuristic Decision Making

Abstract: As reflected in the amount of controversy, few areas in psychology have undergone such dramatic conceptual changes in the past decade as the emerging science of heuristics. Heuristics are efficient cognitive processes, conscious or unconscious, that ignore part of the information. Because using heuristics saves effort, the classical view has been that heuristic decisions imply greater errors than do “rational” decisions as defined by logic or statistical models. However, for many decisions, the assumptions of rational models are not met, and it is an empirical rather than an a priori issue how well cognitive heuristics function in an uncertain world. To answer both the descriptive question (“Which heuristics do people use in which situations?”) and the prescriptive question (“When should people rely on a given heuristic rather than a complex strategy to make better judgments?”), formal models are indispensable. We review research that tests formal models of heuristic inference, including in business organizations, health care, and legal institutions. This research indicates that (a) individuals and organizations often rely on simple heuristics in an adaptive way, and (b) ignoring part of the information can lead to more accurate judgments than weighting and adding all information, for instance for low predictability and small samples. The big future challenge is to develop a systematic theory of the building blocks of heuristics as well as the core capacities and environmental structures these exploit.

The disaggregation of within-person and between-person effects in longitudinal models of change.

Abstract: Longitudinal models are becoming increasingly prevalent in the behavioral sciences, with key advantages including increased power, more comprehensive measurement, and establishment of temporal precedence. One particularly salient strength offered by longitudinal data is the ability to disaggregate between-person and within-person effects in the regression of an outcome on a time-varying covariate. However, the ability to disaggregate these effects has not been fully capitalized upon in many social science research applications. Two likely reasons for this omission are the general lack of discussion of disaggregating effects in the substantive literature and the need to overcome several remaining analytic challenges that limit existing quantitative methods used to isolate these effects in practice. This review explores both substantive and quantitative issues related to the disaggregation of effects over time, with a particular emphasis placed on the multilevel model. Existing analytic methods are reviewed, a general approach to the problem is proposed, and both the existing and proposed methods are demonstrated using several artificial data sets. Potential limitations and directions for future research are discussed, and recommendations for the disaggregation of effects in practice are offered.

A taxonomy of external and internal attention.

Abstract: Attention is a core property of all perceptual and cognitive operations. Given limited capacity to process competing options, attentional mechanisms select, modulate, and sustain focus on information most relevant for behavior. A significant problem, however, is that attention is so ubiquitous that it is unwieldy to study. We propose a taxonomy based on the types of information that attention operates over—the targets of attention. At the broadest level, the taxonomy distinguishes between external attention and internal attention. External attention refers to the selection and modulation of sensory information. External attention selects locations in space, points in time, or modality-specific input. Such perceptual attention can also select features defined across any of these dimensions, or object representations that integrate over space, time, and modality. Internal attention refers to the selection, modulation, and maintenance of internally generated information, such as task rules, responses, long-term memory, or working memory. Working memory, in particular, lies closest to the intersection between external and internal attention. The taxonomy provides an organizing framework that recasts classic debates, raises new issues, and frames understanding of neural mechanisms.

The Neural Bases of Social Cognition and Story Comprehension

Abstract: A great deal of research exists on the neural basis of theory-of-mind (ToM) or mentalizing. Qualitative reviews on this topic have identified a mentalizing network composed of the medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate/precuneus, and bilateral temporal parietal junction. These conclusions, however, are not based on a quantitative and systematic approach. The current review presents a quantitative meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies pertaining to ToM, using the activation-likelihood estimation (ALE) approach. Separate ALE meta-analyses are presented for story-based and nonstory-based studies of ToM. The conjunction of these two meta-analyses reveals a core mentalizing network that includes areas not typically noted by previous reviews. A third ALE meta-analysis was conducted with respect to story comprehension in order to examine the relation between ToM and stories. Story processing overlapped with many regions of the core mentalizing network, and these shared regions bear some resemblance to a n...

The Neuroscience of Social Decision-Making

Abstract: Given that we live in highly complex social environments, many of our most important decisions are made in the context of social interactions. Simple but sophisticated tasks from a branch of experimental economics known as game theory have been used to study social decision-making in the laboratory setting, and a variety of neuroscience methods have been used to probe the underlying neural systems. This approach is informing our knowledge of the neural mechanisms that support decisions about trust, reciprocity, altruism, fairness, revenge, social punishment, social norm conformity, social learning, and competition. Neural systems involved in reward and reinforcement, pain and punishment, mentalizing, delaying gratification, and emotion regulation are commonly recruited for social decisions. This review also highlights the role of the prefrontal cortex in prudent social decision-making, at least when social environments are relatively stable. In addition, recent progress has been made in understanding the neural bases of individual variation in social decision-making.

Peer Contagion in Child and Adolescent Social and Emotional Development

Abstract: In this article, we examine the construct of peer contagion in childhood and adolescence and review studies of child and adolescent development that have identified peer contagion influences. Evidence suggests that children's interactions with peers are tied to increases in aggression in early and middle childhood and amplification of problem behaviors such as drug use, delinquency, and violence in early to late adolescence. Deviancy training is one mechanism that accounts for peer contagion effects on problem behaviors from age 5 through adolescence. In addition, we discuss peer contagion relevant to depression in adolescence, and corumination as an interactive process that may account for these effects. Social network analyses suggest that peer contagion underlies the influence of friendship on obesity, unhealthy body images, and expectations. Literature is reviewed that suggests how peer contagion effects can undermine the goals of public education from elementary school through college and impair the goals of juvenile corrections systems. In particular, programs that "select" adolescents at risk for aggregated preventive interventions are particularly vulnerable to peer contagion effects. It appears that a history of peer rejection is a vulnerability factor for influence by peers, and adult monitoring, supervision, positive parenting, structure, and self-regulation serve as protective factors.

Psychological Science on Pregnancy: Stress Processes, Biopsychosocial Models, and Emerging Research Issues

Abstract: Psychological science on pregnancy is advancing rapidly. A major focus concerns stress processes in pregnancy and effects on preterm birth and low birth weight. The current evidence points to pregnancy anxiety as a key risk factor in the etiology of preterm birth, and chronic stress and depression in the etiology of low birth weight. Key mediating processes to which these effects are attributed, that is neuroendocrine, inflammatory, and behavioral mechanisms, are examined briefly and research on coping with stress in pregnancy is examined. Evidence regarding social support and birth weight is also reviewed with attention to research gaps regarding mechanisms, partner relationships, and cultural influences. The neurodevelopmental consequences of prenatal stress are highlighted, and resilience resources among pregnant women are conceptualized. Finally, a multilevel theoretical approach for the study of pregnancy anxiety and preterm birth is presented to stimulate future research.

Psychological Perspectives on Pathways Linking Socioeconomic Status and Physical Health

Abstract: Low socioeconomic status (SES) is a reliable correlate of poor physical health. Rather than treat SES as a covariate, health psychology has increasingly focused on the psychobiological pathways that inform understanding why SES is related to physical health. This review assesses the status of research that has examined stress and its associated distress, and social and personal resources as pathways. It highlights work on biomarkers and biological pathways related to SES that can serve as intermediate outcomes in future studies. Recent emphasis on the accumulation of psychobiological risks across the life course is summarized and represents an important direction for future research. Studies that test pathways from SES to candidate psychosocial pathways to health outcomes are few in number but promising. Future research should test integrated models rather than taking piecemeal approaches to evidence. Much work remains to be done, but the questions are of great health significance.

The development of autobiographical memory.

Abstract: Autobiographical memory is a uniquely human system that integrates memories of past experiences into an overarching life narrative. In this review, I extend social-cultural models of autobiographical memory development and present theory and research that demonstrates that (a) autobiographical memory is a gradually developing system across childhood and adolescence that depends on the development of a sense of subjective self as continuous in time; (b) autobiographical memory develops within specific social and cultural contexts that relate to individual, gendered, and cultural differences in adults' autobiographical memories, and, more specifically, (c) mothers who reminisce with their young children in elaborated and evaluative ways have children who develop more detailed, coherent, and evaluative autobiographical memories.

Culture, Mind, and the Brain: Current Evidence and Future Directions

Abstract: Current research on culture focuses on independence and interdependence and documents numerous East-West psychological differences, with an increasing emphasis placed on cognitive mediating mechanisms. Lost in this literature is a time-honored idea of culture as a collective process composed of cross-generationally transmitted values and associated behavioral patterns (i.e., practices). A new model of neuro-culture interaction proposed here addresses this conceptual gap by hypothesizing that the brain serves as a crucial site that accumulates effects of cultural experience, insofar as neural connectivity is likely modified through sustained engagement in cultural practices. Thus, culture is “embrained,” and moreover, this process requires no cognitive mediation. The model is supported in a review of empirical evidence regarding (a) collective-level factors involved in both production and adoption of cultural values and practices and (b) neural changes that result from engagement in cultural practices. Future directions of research on culture, mind, and the brain are discussed.

Culture, mind, and the brain: Current evidence and future

Abstract: Current research on culture focuses on independence and interdependence and documents numerous East-West psychological differences, with an increasing emphasis placed on cognitivemediatingmechanisms. Lost in this literature is a time-honored idea of culture as a collective process composed of cross-generationally transmitted values and associated behavioral patterns (i.e., practices). A new model of neuro-culture interaction proposed here addresses this conceptual gap by hypothesizing that the brain serves as a crucial site that accumulates effects of cultural experience, insofar as neural connectivity is likely modified through sustained engagement in cultural practices. Thus, culture is “embrained,” and moreover, this process requires no cognitive mediation.Themodel is supported in a reviewof empirical evidence regarding (a) collective-level factors involved in both production and adoption of cultural values and practices and (b) neural changes that result from engagement in cultural practices. Future directions of research on culture, mind, and the brain are discussed. 419 A nn u. R ev . P sy ch ol . 2 01 1. 62 :4 19 -4 49 . D ow nl oa de d fr om w w w .a nn ua lr ev ie w s. or g by U ni ve rs ity o f M ic hi ga n A nn A rb or o n 12 /1 5/ 10 . F or p er so na l u se o nl y. PS62CH16-Kitayama ARI 10 November 2010 7:52 Independence versus interdependence: social orientations that emphasize each individual’s distinctness, uniqueness, and separation from others (e.g., self-promotion, self-expression, and self-sustenance) versus each individual’s embeddedness and connectedness with others (e.g., social harmony and coordination, relational attachment, and social duties), respectively

Long-term impact of prevention programs to promote effective parenting: lasting effects but uncertain processes.

Abstract: This article reviews findings from 46 randomized experimental trials of preventive parenting interventions. The findings of these trials provide evidence of effects to prevent a wide range of problem outcomes and to promote competencies from one to 20 years later. However, there is a paucity of evidence concerning the processes that account for program effects. Three alternative pathways are proposed as a framework for future research on the long-term effects of preventive parenting programs: (a) through program effects on parenting skills, perceptions of parental efficacy, and reduction in barriers to effective parenting; (b) through program-induced reductions in short-term problems of youth that persist over time, improvements in youth adaptation to stress, and improvements in youth belief systems concerning the self and their relationships with others; and (c) through effects on contexts in which youth become involved and on youth-environment transactions.

Neuroscience of Self and Self-Regulation

Abstract: As a social species, humans have a fundamental need to belong that encourages behaviors consistent with being a good group member. Being a good group member requires the capacity for self-regulation, which allows people to alter or inhibit behaviors that would place them at risk for group exclusion. Self-regulation requires four psychological components. First, people need to be aware of their behavior so as to gauge it against societal norms. Second, people need to understand how others are reacting to their behavior so as to predict how others will respond to them. This necessitates a third mechanism, which detects threat, especially in complex social situations. Finally, there needs to be a mechanism for resolving discrepancies between self-knowledge and social expectations or norms, thereby motivating behavior to resolve any conflict that exists. This article reviews recent social neuroscience research on the psychological components that support the human capacity for self-regulation.

Psychological Wisdom Research: Commonalities and Differences in a Growing Field

Abstract: Wisdom represents a fruitful topic for psychological investigations for at least two reasons. First, the study of wisdom emphasizes the search for the continued optimization and the further cultural evolution of the human condition. Second, it exemplifies the collaboration of cognitive, emotional, and motivational processes. The growth and scope of psychological wisdom research over the past few decades demonstrate that it is possible to investigate this complex construct with empirical rigor. Since the 1970s, five main areas have been established: lay definitions of wisdom, conceptualizing and measuring wisdom, understanding the development of wisdom, investigating the plasticity of wisdom, and applying psychological knowledge about wisdom in life contexts.

Do Conscious Thoughts Cause Behavior

Abstract: Everyday intuitions suggest full conscious control of behavior, but evidence of unconscious causation and automaticity has sustained the contrary view that conscious thought has little or no impact on behavior. We review studies with random assignment to experimental manipulations of conscious thought and behavioral dependent measures. Topics include mental practice and simulation, anticipation, planning, reflection and rehearsal, reasoning, counterproductive effects, perspective taking, self-affirmation, framing, communication, and overriding automatic responses. The evidence for conscious causation of behavior is profound, extensive, adaptive, multifaceted, and empirically strong. However, conscious causation is often indirect and delayed, and it depends on interplay with unconscious processes. Consciousness seems especially useful for enabling behavior to be shaped by nonpresent factors and by social and cultural information, as well as for dealing with multiple competing options or impulses. It is plausible that almost every human behavior comes from a mixture of conscious and unconscious processing.

Socialization Processes in the Family: Social and Emotional Development

Abstract: Children learn moral values and social conventions through a process of socialization, much of which involves parenting. The process is bidirectional and involves a complex interplay between evolutionary predispositions and genetic and socio-cultural factors. Children's perception of, or assignment of meaning to, parenting interventions is central. Socialization occurs in different domains marked by different aspects of the parent-child relationship and different underlying mechanisms. Each domain requires different parenting actions that must be matched to the domain in which the child is operating and that result in different outcomes for the child. The domains include protection, mutual reciprocity, control, guided learning, and group participation, and are assumed to be operative in all cultures. The review concludes that children need to experience their parents as supportive and understanding, that they need structure, and that they need to feel they have some degree of control over their own actions.

Causal Learning and Inference as a Rational Process: The New Synthesis

Abstract: Over the past decade, an active line of research within the field of human causal learning and inference has converged on a general representational framework: causal models integrated with Bayesian probabilistic inference. We describe this new synthesis, which views causal learning and inference as a fundamentally rational process, and review a sample of the empirical findings that support the causal framework over associative alternatives. Causal events, like all events in the distal world as opposed to our proximal perceptual input, are inherently unobservable. A central assumption of the causal approach is that humans (and potentially nonhuman animals) have been designed in such a way as to infer the most invariant causal relations for achieving their goals based on observed events. In contrast, the associative approach assumes that learners only acquire associations among important observed events, omitting the representation of the distal relations. By incorporating Bayesian inference over distribut...

The development of problem solving in young children: a critical cognitive skill.

Abstract: Problem solving is a signature attribute of adult humans, but we need to understand how this develops in children. Tool use is proposed as an ideal way to study problem solving in children less than 3 years of age because overt manual action can reveal how the child plans to achieve a goal. Motor errors are as informative as successful actions. Research is reviewed on intentional actions, beginning with block play and progressing to picking up a spoon in different orientations, and finally retrieving objects with rakes and from inside tubes. Behavioral and kinematic measures of motor action are combined to show different facets of skill acquisition and mastery. We need to design environments that encourage and enhance problem solving from a young age. One goal of this review is to excite interest and spur new research on the beginnings of problem solving and its elaboration during development.

Early Care, Education, and Child Development

Abstract: Children growing up in the United States today typically spend a substantial portion of their early childhood years in early care and education (ECE) settings. These settings are thus an essential element of any effort to understand the ecology of early development. Research aimed at identifying the short- and long-term impacts of ECE experiences has a long history, the results of which now point to three key conclusions. (a) Although parents are the most important influence on children's development, ECE experiences have both short- and long-term impacts on a wide range of developmental outcomes that are best understood in interaction with family effects. (b) The quality of adult-child interactions in ECE settings is the most potent source of variation in child outcomes, although the amount of exposure to these settings also plays a role, perhaps especially with regard to social-emotional development. (c) Some children, notably those growing up in poverty, appear to be more vulnerable to variation in the quality of ECE settings than do other children. The frontiers of ECE research are addressing individual differences in children's responses to child care and approaching these settings both as sites for intervention research and as part of a wider web of important settings in young children's lives.

The phenomenon of social influence on the football pitch: Social pressure from the crowd on referees’ decisions

Abstract: The phenomenon of social pressure on the behaviour of individuals has always played a critical role in most areas of society, and affects the outcome of important events. In fact, in many situations each single individual is encouraged by social pressure to make decisions which, although against their own inclinations, conform to the expectations of the group they are in, thus looking to avoid disapproval and being judged. In briefly introducing the influence of social forces, it is important to note that this phenomenon is rarely clearly defined, due to the wide range of processes which it covers. Therefore many social psychologists have decided to use an ‘open’ definition on the basis of which research into the influence of social forces is an analysis of the ways in which an individual’s or a group’s mental processes, emotions, decisions and behaviour is modified according to the presence, literal or symbolic, of other individuals or groups.

The role of reading strategies in scientific text comprehension and academic achievement of university students

Abstract: The aim of the study was to explore the relations between comprehension strategies engaged in different aspects of comprehension processing, and to examine the relationship of these strategies and text comprehension to academic achievement. The participants in the study were 112 undergraduate psychology students (10 male and 102 female). Text comprehension was assessed on three short scientific paragraphs on topics from cognitive psychology. A self-explanatory task was applied for assessing the use of three reading strategies: paraphrasing, bridging inferences and elaborations. Additionally, question generation and summarizing tasks were administered. Grade point average (GPA) was used as an indicator of academic achievement. Relations between reading strategies indicated grouping of the strategies that foster different aspects of comprehension processing from the text-base level to the situation model of the text. Students typically use paraphrases, regardless of their reading comprehension level ; however, good comprehenders use more strategies that help readers to build global representation of the text compared to poor comprehenders. The use of elaboration strategies and the use of summarizing strategy were the best predictors of text comprehension. The effects of reading strategies on GPA were mediated by reading comprehension.

Brain and emotion: Cognitive neuroscience of emotions

Abstract: Cognitive neuroscience of emotions is a rapidly growing field. It focuses on the neural basis of emotional and social processes and strongly contributes to the better understanding of the biological basis of emotional processing. It integrates the results of neural and behavioral levels of analysis in healthy and clinical populations as well. The main topics and questions in cognitive neuroscience of emotions are the role of emotions in information processing, their neural basis for both cortical and sub-cortical levels, the perception of arousing and neutral stimuli, emotions and memory, the role of emotion in decision making, detecting emotional versus neutral faces, and individual differences in emotionality and their biological background. Brain imaging techniques (e.g., functional magnetic resonance imaging–fMRI) are used both for examining functional connections between emotion and perception, attention, memory and decision making, and for localizing specific psychological functions to specific brain areas. In this paper we discuss not only current research trends and methods but some important brain areas responsible for emotions (e.g., amygdala, anterior cingular cortex, prefrontal cortex) as well.

Development in the Early Years: Socialization, Motor Development, and Consciousness

Abstract: Patterns of socialization have changed in recent decades. Very young children now have fewer constraints on physical activities and greater freedom to assert themselves. This parenting style, I suggest, has implications for developmental processes related to upright locomotion, the use of hands as tools, and an embodied consciousness. This review explores four issues. First, I summarize historical trends in patterns of child-rearing and possible developmental consequences. Then I explore evolutionary patterns as a means to further developmental understanding of the initial phases of motor development. The third section reviews research on young humans' developmental paths toward locomotion and hand skills, examining early and current findings. Finally, I raise the issue of a body-action consciousness that emerges during infancy and the toddler years, suggest its developmental relevance, situate the theme in current developmental models, and explore applied implications.

Fear of flying assessment: A contribution to the Italian validation of two self-report measures

Abstract: The present study describes the psychometric properties of the Italian adaptation of two self-report scales for fear of flying assessment: the Flight Anxiety Situations questionnaire (FAS), which measures anxiety related to specific flying phases, and the Flight Anxiety Modality questionnaire (FAM), which focuses on somatic and cognitive modalities occurring in air travel situations. Although both questionnaires have been translated in various languages and tailored to several local frameworks, this is the only study that provides an evaluation of the adapted instruments’ validity and reliability. Validation procedures were done on 259 participants, including patients who experienced fear of flying as well as a group of non-clinical subjects. Exploratory factor analysis was used to investigate the optimal design for the dimensional structure of both instruments. Confirmatory analyses showed that the envisaged models provided an acceptable fit for the available data. A three-factor solution for FAS and a two-factor solution for FAM were therefore detected. Construct validity was supported by convergent and criterion-related data, internal consistency was satisfactory for all subscales, and both instruments revealed a high level of sensitivity to change. Overall, psychometric quality of both measures showed to be fairly good and comparable to those found in the original study, thus suggesting their application in treatment programs for non-English speakers.

The construct validity of over-claiming as a measure of egoistic enhancement

Abstract: Over-claiming is the tendency to claim knowledge about nonexistent items. Findings of the previous research suggest it might serve as a measure of unconscious egoistic bias, one form of socially desirable responding. The aim of this study was to examine the convergent and divergent validity of over-claiming within Paulhus two-tiered model of socially desirable responding. Total of 382 participants filled-in the Over-claiming Questionnaire, together with Comprehensive Inventory of Desirable Responding and IPIP-300 personality inventory, under honesty instructions. Results indicate that over-claiming might represent a measure of egoistic bias, but still is not enough clear whether this bias is conscious or unconscious.

Work locus of control as a mediator of the relationship between sources and consequences of occupational stress among university teachers

Abstract: Recent research on work well-being of academic staff in higher education does not support the traditional view of this profession. Unlike previous research which places university teachers on top of the list in terms of job satisfaction and well-being (see Sales & House, 1971), recent studies show a decreased psychological well-being in university teaching staff (Barkhuizen & Rothmann, 2008; Kinman & Jones, 2008b; Winefield et al., 2003), a higher level of burnout at work (Lackritz, 2004), the presence of various psychosomatic diseases (Blix, Cruise, Mitchell, & Blix, 1994; Gillespie, Walsh, Winefield, Dua, & Stough, 2001; Kinman, 1998), reduced job satisfaction (Kinman, 1998), a higher intention to leave the job (Barkhuizen & Rothmann, 2008; Gillespie et al., 2001; Kinman & Jones, 2008b), and reduced job performance (Barkhuizen & Rothmann, 2008; Jacobs, Tytherleigh, Webb, & Cooper, 2007; Parry et al., 2008). Disturbed well-being and reduced work motivation are the result of increased work pressures which university teachers are confronted with. Several authors have found that scientific and teaching staff are more exposed to occupational stress than general staff, normative population and other highly-stressed occupational groups (such as doctors and managers), and also when compared to previous years (Barkhuizen & Rothmann, 2008; Catano et al., 2010; Doyle, 2003; Doyle & Hind, 1998; Gillespie et al., 2001; Kinman, 1998; Kinman & Jones, 2003, 2004; Tytherleigh, Webb, Cooper, & Ricketts, 2005; Winefield & Jarrett, 2001; Winefield et al., 2003). These findings confirm the overall impression that the structure and working conditions of university teaching staff have changed significantly in recent years. The reason for this may be sought in the reforms in higher education which, among other things, result in an increased number of enrolments and a stronger connection between academic activities and the economy. For this reason the aim of most contemporary studies on occupational stress in university teachers was to identify the characteristic sources of pressure and/or determine the level of their consequences, usually in terms of work well-being and motivation. The most common sources of work-related stress are the following: unfavorable working conditions (Barkhuizen & Rothmann, 2008; Cownie, 2004; Gillespie et al., 2001; Kinman, 1998; Narayanan, Menon, & Spector, 1999), work overload (Barkhuizen & Routhmann, 2008; Gillespie et al., 2001; Kinman, 2001; Thorsen, 1996; Tytherleigh, 2003, Tytherleigh et al., 2005), and the conflict between work and family/social roles (Barkhuizen & Rothmann, 2008; Cownie, 2004; Kinman & Jones, 2008a, 2008b; Tytherleigh et al., Ana Sliskovic, Department of Psychology, University of Zadar, Obala kralja Petra Kresimira IV, 2, 23 000 Zadar, Croatia. E-mail: aslavic@ unizd.hr (the address for correspondence);

The effect of feedback on the intensity of the illusion of linearity in high-school students’ solving of geometry problems

Abstract: This study examines the illusion of linearity in high-school students’ solving of geometrical problems related to the perimeter and the area of similarly reduced or enlarged figures. Previous studies have shown that students strongly believe that when one dimension of a geometrical figure is increased or decreased by factor k, the perimeter and area of that figure increase or decrease by the same factor. Such reasoning is correct when it comes to perimeters, but the area is actually modified by a factor k2. Participants in our study were third grade high-school students. They have taken an exam consisting of 6 linear and 6 non-linear items on two occasions. The results on the first exam have shown that students were very successful in solving linear problems, but were markedly unsuccessful in solving non-linear problems. Before applying the second exam, half of the students were given feedback regarding their performance on the first exam and had an opportunity to solve some of the items again. On the second exam these students solved more non-linear problems correctly than the students of the control group, but in parallel, they achieved weaker results on the linear problems when compared to the students who were not involved in our intervention.

Psychological pressure and athletes’ perception of motivational climate in team sports

Abstract: The differences in perception of motivational climate between athletes who differ in the feeling of pressure in regard to their sport were investigated. The sample consisted of 388 young male Croatian football and handball players. Croatian version of Perceived Motivational Climate Questionnaire was administered and pressure/tension subscale from Croatian version of Intrinsic Motivation Inventory was used to evaluate a feeling of pressure during training and competition. The results showed prevalence of mastery motivational climate. The feeling of pressure correlated positively with performance climate, and negatively with mastery motivational climate. Low pressured athletes perceive more signs of mastery climate in their environment than highly pressured athletes. The high pressured athletes perceive significantly more signs of performance motivational climate in their teams in comparison to low pressured athletes.

The hypothesis-based investigation of patterns of relatedness by means of confirmatory factor models: The treatment levels of the Exchange Test as example

Abstract: This paper presents a method for formalizing hypotheses on the outcomes of performance according to different treatment levels that can be investigated by means of confirmatory factor models. This method includes several steps starting from the general research hypotheses and the characteristics of the stimulated processes and ends up with a pattern of relatedness that can be integrated into a confirmatory model for an investigation. It is a fixed-links model adapted to the pattern of relatedness with the factor loadings constrained according to this pattern. This method is demonstrated in a measure of working memory capacity that includes several treatment levels. Three alternative hypotheses and the corresponding patterns of relatedness are considered for an investigation. The data for the investigation originate from an internet study. The results demonstrate the usefulness of this systematic approach to the investigation of assumed patterns. It turns out that in the internet data one pattern is clearly superior to the other patterns.