Showing papers in "Computers in Education in 2019"

The technology acceptance model (TAM): A meta-analytic structural equation modeling approach to explaining teachers’ adoption of digital technology in education

Abstract: The extent to which teachers adopt technology in their teaching practice has long been in the focus of research. Indeed, a plethora of models exist explaining influential factors and mechanisms of technology use in classrooms, one of which—the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and versions thereof—has dominated the field. Although consensus exists about which factors in the TAM might predict teachers’ technology adoption, the current field abounds in some controversies and inconsistent findings. This meta-analysis seeks to clarify some of these issues by combining meta-analysis with structural equation modeling approaches. Specifically, we synthesized 124 correlation matrices from 114 empirical TAM studies (N = 34,357 teachers) and tested the fit of the TAM and its versions. Overall, the TAM explains technology acceptance well; yet, the role of certain key constructs and the importance of external variables contrast some existing beliefs about the TAM. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

The impact of a flipped classroom approach on student learning experience

Abstract: In this paper we report on our evaluation of the impact of a flipped classroom approach on the learning experience of students undertaking an undergraduate biology course. The flipped sessions comprised pre-recorded lectures, online quizzes and in-class group activities in the course design. The success of the approach was evaluated on the basis of perceptions held by the course coordinator and students on how the new course design influenced the student learning experience. Data were collected through a student questionnaire and structured interviews with the course coordinator. Overall, the students reported a high degree of satisfaction with some elements of the flipped approach. However, some activities were less well regarded, with concerns identified by the course coordinator and students. A key finding was that elements from the model for student learning design presented in this article were correlated with student confidence, motivation and engagement. It was concluded that refinements of components of the flipped design, such as the pre-recorded lectures and the structure of the in-class sessions, may further enhance the student learning experience in this course.

A systematic review of learning computational thinking through Scratch in K-9

Abstract: As computational thinking (CT) is being embraced by educational systems worldwide, researchers and teachers have posed important questions such as “what to teach” and “what can be learned.” These questions are universally crucial to the learning of all subjects. Nevertheless, there is no up-to-date, systematic overview of CT education for K-9 students that attempt to provide answers to these crucial questions. Thus, this systematic review presents a synthesis of 55 empirical studies, providing evidence of the development of computational thinking through programming in Scratch, one of the most popular visual block programming languages in schools. The purpose of this review is to systematically examine the CT skills that can be obtained through Scratch in K-9 based on empirical evidence. This systematic review has adopted Brennan and Resnick's (2012) framework as the basis for defining and identifying the expected CT skills in K-9. The major findings entail what computational thinking skills students in K-9 can learn through Scratch in relation to the framework mentioned above, taking the progression of learning into account. Additional CT skills that are not captured by the framework were identified including input/output, reading, interpreting and communicating code, using multimodal media, predictive thinking, and human-computer interaction. These additional CT skills are not currently presented in Brennan and Resnick's (2012) framework and can be considered as possible supplements to their framework. Furthermore, the paper discusses the difficulties regarding assessment and the progression of the identified skills, as well as problems with study designs. Finally, the paper sets out suggestions for future studies based on the current research gaps.

Student enrollment, motivation and learning performance in a blended learning environment: The mediating effects of social, teaching, and cognitive presence

Abstract: This study investigated the effects of student enrolment and learning motivation on learning performance in a blended learning setting at the university level with social, teaching, and learning presence as mediating factors. Data samples were collected from 96 students taking blended learning course and 111 students taking a traditional course. The comparison between these two groups does not show a significant difference in the three presences and learning performance. Structural equation modelling results revealed that student enrolment has a positive impact on social presence and cognitive presence. Enrolment also positively influences learning performance through the above two presences. Learning motivation positively influence social presence only. Learning motivation also plays a vital role in enhancing the enrolment but does not directly influence learning performance in a blended learning setting. Teaching presence was found to have direct positive impacts on the cognitive presence and social presence, and indirect positive impacts on learning performance. These findings highlight the importance of student enrolment and course design from the teaching perspective in a blended learning setting.

Trends and development in technology-enhanced adaptive/personalized learning: A systematic review of journal publications from 2007 to 2017

Abstract: In this study, the trends and developments of technology-enhanced adaptive/personalized learning have been studied by reviewing the related journal articles in the recent decade (i.e., from 2007 to 2017). To be specific, we investigated many research issues such as the parameters of adaptive/personalized learning, learning supports, learning outcomes, subjects, participants, hardware, and so on. Furthermore, this study reveals that personalized/adaptive learning has always been an attractive topic in this field, and personalized data sources, for example, students’ preferences, learning achievements, profiles, and learning logs have become the main parameters for supporting personalized/adaptive learning. In addition, we found that the majority of the studies on personalized/adaptive learning still only supported traditional computers or devices, while only a few studies have been conducted on wearable devices, smartphones and tablet computers. In other words, personalized/adaptive learning has a significant number of potential applications on the above smart devices with the rapid development of artificial intelligence, virtual reality, cloud computing and wearable computing. Through the in-depth analysis of the trends and developments in the various dimensions of personalized/adaptive learning, the future research directions, issues and challenges are discussed in our paper.

Tracking e-learning through published papers: a systematic review

Abstract: Electronic learning (e-learning) is a broader approach to learning that brings new opportunities for learning and teaching in many fields of education far from the traditional classroom environment. Over the past decades, research in the field indicates a proliferation of e-learning contents and discrepancies that affect interoperability patterns in education for students and teachers; however, little has been done to assess the usability of e-learning systems. From a different perspective, this study aims to provide information on the numerous findings relating to the cumulative results of e-learning in education. This systematic review uses a full protocol with the aim of standardizing and specifying all the procedures adopted to collect and code 99 academic articles from 2010 to 2018 with keywords: education and e-learning. The text analysis as conducted using the qualitative software Leximancer to extract meaning from the large number of articles retrieved. The results highlight four dominant themes, namely education systems and learning issues that in turn promote student behaviours and the use of online learning tools. This research contributes towards providing research propositions that can be used in a cogent theoretical framework and, based on the analysis, we also propose a new definition of e-learning.

Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment

Abstract: Immersive virtual reality (VR) is predicted to have a significant impact on education; but most studies investigating learning with immersive VR have reported mixed results when compared to low-immersion media. In this study, a sample of 118 participants was used to test whether a lesson presented in either immersive VR or as a video could benefit from the pre-training principle, as a means of reducing cognitive load. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two method conditions (with/without pre-training), and one of two media conditions (immersive VR/video). The results showed an interaction between media and method, indicating that pre-training had a positive effect on knowledge (d = 0.81), transfer (d = 0.62), and self-efficacy (d = 0.64) directly following the intervention; and on self-efficacy (d = 0.84) in a one-week delayed post-test in the immersive VR condition. No effect was found for any of these variables within the video condition.

Research trends in the use of augmented reality in science education: Content and bibliometric mapping analysis

Abstract: The aim of this study was to reveal research trends over the last six years by content analysis and to examine bibliometric results of articles related to the use of augmented reality (AR) in science education. For bibliometric mapping analysis, a total of 147 articles were accessed and for content analysis, a total of 79 articles published between 2013 and 2018 years were included from the Web of Science. From this, a total of 62 articles were selected for analysis. Our results revealed that mobile learning, science education, science learning and e-learning were the most used keywords in articles, while the focus of more recent articles tended to be on mobile learning. The results showed that recent articles have mostly focused on mobile learning and e-learning environments. The most-used words in the abstracts were education, knowledge, science education, experiment and effectiveness. It is evident that recent articles have focused mostly on students' knowledge and achievement. Azuma, Dunleavy and Klopfer are the most cited authors in this field. This is not surprising as they are probably the leading authors on AR in the literature. The most cited journals are Computers & Education, Journal of Science Education & Technology, Educational Technology and Society, Computers in Human Behavior, and British Journal of Educational Technology. These are the most prominent journals on the use of technology in education. Content analysis results showed that “Learning/Academic Achievement”, “Motivation” and “Attitude” have been the most examined variables in the articles. Since academic achievement is highly influenced by motivation and attitude, it is understandable that these variables are considered together in reviewed studies. It was found that mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been the most-favored types of materials for AR because these types of materials are easy to use and they can be developed easily and practically. Quantitative studies were the most used research design type but there have been only a limited number of qualitative studies in the last six years. This may be due to the increased tendency to use quantitative and mixed studies in recent years.

Integrating augmented reality into problem based learning: The effects on learning achievement and attitude in physics education

Abstract: This study investigates the effects of Problem Based Learning (PBL) assisted with Augmented Reality (AR) on learning achievement and attitude towards physics subjects as a part of science education. The sample of the study included 91 seventh graders from a province in the north of Turkey. A quasi-experimental design with two experimental groups and a control group was utilized. Based upon marker-based AR technologies, FenAR software was developed to support with PBL activities in the classroom. The experimental results indicated that integrating AR into PBL activities both increased students' learning achievement and promoted their positive attitudes towards physics subjects. This technology contributed to students' long-term retention of the concepts in the field of physics. In semi-structured interviews, the students emphasized that AR applications were more useful, realistic, and interesting for their learning; helped them to understand and analyse the problem scenarios. Apart from educational advantages, AR applications may lead to physical disorders among some of the students. It has been suggested that AR technology can be a potential and effective tool for activating students' positive emotions in PBL process. Moreover, implications on use of AR for physics education and recommendations for further studies are also discussed in the study.

Student acceptance of virtual laboratory and practical work: An extension of the technology acceptance model

Abstract: The development of Internet technologies and new ways of sharing information has facilitated the emergence of a variety of elearning scenarios. However, in technological areas such as engineering, where students must carry out hands-on exercises and laboratory work essential for their learning, it is not so easy to design online environments for practicals. The aim of this experimental study was to examine students' acceptance of technology and the process of adopting an online learning environment incorporating web-based resources, such as virtual laboratories, interactive activities, and educational videos, and a game-based learning methodology. To this end, their responses to an online questionnaire (n = 223) were analyzed using structural equation modeling. The study was based on the technology acceptance model (TAM), but included and assessed other factors such as perceived efficiency, playfulness, and satisfaction, which are not explained by the TAM. Our results confirm that this extension of the TAM provides a useful theoretical model to help understand and explain users' acceptance of an online learning environment incorporating virtual laboratory and practical work. Our results also indicate that efficiency, playfulness, and students' degree of satisfaction are factors that positively influence the original TAM variables and students' acceptance of this technology. Here, we also discuss the significant theoretical and spractical implications for educational use of these web-based resources.

Progress and new directions for teaching and learning in MOOCs

Abstract: This paper presents a narrative review of the literature related to the landscape of learning and teaching in Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). Past reviews of the MOOC literature have primarily focused on identifying trends and categorising MOOC studies. Syntheses of recent empirical contributions on learning and teaching in MOOCs are scarce. This review evaluated 102 academic studies published between 2014 and 2016 on the learning and teaching aspects of MOOCs. These studies were analysed using Biggs’ 3P Model of Teaching and Learning as an organising framework. The analysis examines four key learning and teaching factors: learner factors, teaching context, learner engagement, and learning outcomes. Five important findings emerged from this analysis: (1) evidence-based research on non-mainstream consumers of MOOCs is scarce; (2) the role of learner factors is oversimplified in evidence-based MOOC research; (3) there is no attempt to reconcile different approaches to measuring learner engagement with MOOCs; (4) measures of learning outcomes lack sophistication and are often based on single variables; and (5) the relationships between many of the key learning and teaching factors have not been clarified. It is argued that continuing to study learning and teaching factors in isolation without considering how they interact with each other does not move the research field forward.

Comparing success and engagement in gamified learning experiences via Kahoot and Quizizz

Abstract: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the reflections of gamification activities that are used as a formative assessment tool based on academic achievement and student engagement in learning environments. It was also aimed to investigate whether the utilization of the gamification tool led to a difference in academic achievement and student engagement. Three research groups were determined; two experimental groups where 7E instructional model gamified with Kahoot and Quizizz was implemented and a control group where conventional 7E instruction method was implemented. The groups were determined by random assignment of 97 pre-service teachers who took scientific research methods course in the 2017–2018 academic year spring semester. However, since only 71 of the assigned pre-service teachers voluntarily participated in the study, the study data included 71 pre-service teachers. At the beginning and the end of the six-week-long instruction activities, the academic achievement test and student engagement scale on the content instructed in the six-week-long scientific research methods course were applied. Furthermore, in-depth views of pre-service teachers were obtained with focus group interviews. Therefore, the study was conducted with mixed design principles. The study findings demonstrated that the scientific research methods academic achievement x student engagement × group interaction model (Wilks's lambda = .819, F[2, 66] = 7.301, p

How the flipped classroom affects knowledge, skills, and engagement in higher education: Effects on students' satisfaction

Abstract: The aim of this research is to present a successful flipped classroom proposal in higher education to better understand its influence in terms of knowledge, skills and engagement. The reason why we focus on these three dimensions is because of their core roles in the international learning conceptual frameworks presented above to increase the employability of Generation Z students in the digital society of the 21st century. In doing so, first, we first develop a measurement scale (4D_FLIPPED) to explore the degree of flipped classroom presence in our higher education learning experience. Then, we present a structural equation model to analyze the causal relationships of knowledge, skills, and engagement with students' satisfaction. The empirical results point out that there are four fundamental dimensions that should be present in the flipped classroom to be successful in the 21st century with Generation Z. This study also confirms that the flipped classroom has positive effects on students’ knowledge, skills, and engagement. Our research provides useful recommendations and insights for academia.

Technology integration of pre-service teachers explained by attitudes and beliefs, competency, access, and experience

Abstract: The overall aim of this study was to map the technology integration of pre-service teachers at the start of their initial teacher education program, since beginning teachers indicated that they do not feel fully prepared to integrate technology effectively in the classroom. Attitudes and beliefs towards technology (will), learning experience in technology use (experience), competency of technology use (skill), and access to technology (tool) (expansion of the WST model, Knezek & Christensen, 2008) of 398 pre-service teachers were examined. The results of regression analyses indicated that the WST model explained the variation in pre-service teachers' technology integration (R2 = 0.60). The attitudes and beliefs were found to be the strongest influence and access to technology the weakest. Adding experience to the model (WEST model) did not improve the prediction, although, experience was found to affect technology integration significantly when the measurements were considered as one scale. Concerns about the structure of the WST model were discussed.

Technology Enhanced Learning in higher education; motivations, engagement and academic achievement

Abstract: Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) has become a common feature of Higher Education. However, research has been hindered by a lack of differentiation between usage and engagement and not recognising the heterogeneity of TEL applications. The current study aimed to assess the impact of emotional, cognitive and behavioural engagement with TEL on students’ grades and to also look at how motivation levels differentially predict engagement across different types of TEL. In a sample of 524 undergraduate students, we measured engagement and usage of TEL, student learning motivations and self-report student grades. Our results indicate that intrinsic motivations predict engagement, whilst extrinsic motivations predict usage. Importantly, engagement was predictive of grades whereas usage was not. Furthermore, when TEL was broken down by type, the use of social media groups was a significant predictor of grade, whereas reviewing lecture slides/ recordings, reading additional content and using course blogs/ discussion boards were not. We conclude that a sole focus on usage of TEL is misleading. Implications for researchers and educators are discussed.

Coding as a playground: Promoting positive learning experiences in childhood classrooms

Abstract: In recent years, there has been a push to introduce coding and computational thinking in early childhood education, and robotics is an excellent tool to achieve this. However, the integration of these fundamental skills into formal and official curriculums is still a challenge and educators needs pedagogical perspectives to properly integrate robotics, coding and computational thinking concepts into their classrooms. Thus, this study evaluates a “coding as a playground” experience in keeping with the Positive Technological Development (PTD) framework with the KIBO robotics kit, specially designed for young children. The research was conducted with preschool children aged 3–5 years old (N = 172) from three Spanish early childhood centers with different socio-economic characteristics and teachers of 16 classes. Results confirm that it is possible to start teaching this new literacy very early (at 3 years old). Furthermore, the results show that the strategies used promoted communication, collaboration and creativity in the classroom settings. The teachers also exhibited autonomy and confidence to integrate coding and computational thinking into their formal curricular activities, connecting concepts with art, music and social studies. Through the evidence found in this study, this research contributes with examples of effective strategies to introduce robotics, coding and computational thinking into early childhood classrooms.

The role of demographics in online learning; A decision tree based approach

Abstract: Research has shown online learners’ performance to have a strong association with their demographic characteristics, such as regional belonging, socio-economic standing, education level, age, gender, and disability status. Despite a growing number of studies exploring factors for successful online learning outcomes, most researchers have utilised one or a combination of very few learner characteristics. Moreover, a limited number of studies scrutinised the impact of individual characteristics on learning outcomes as learners progress in a course. The current research aims to explore the dynamic impact of demographic characteristics on academic outcomes in the online learning environment. We investigated and compared the dynamic influence of six demographic characteristics on online learning outcomes using a sample of 8581 UK based learners across four Open University online courses from four different disciplines. We found region, neighborhood poverty level, and prior education respectively, to be strong predictors of overall learning outcomes. However, at a fine-grain level, such influence varied temporally as the course progressed, as well as between different courses. To conclude with, we discussed the implications for institutional support on adopting a tailored approach towards a more personalised student support system.

Online learning usage within Yemeni higher education: The role of compatibility and task-technology fit as mediating variables in the IS success model

Abstract: The practice of online learning can appreciably enhance administrative, communicative, and educational qualities, support learning using scarce resources and limited infrastructure, and encourage educational equity through flexible place and time usage. Although researchers have examined online learning usage within multiple situations, the roles of task-technology-fit (TTF) and compatibility as mediating variables have not been investigated through Delone and Mclean's model of IS success. Survey data gathered from 448 students across nine public universities within Yemen was collectively analysed through structural equation modelling (SEM) using SmartPLS 3.0. The findings comprised six primary outcomes, wherein overall quality (service, system, and information qualities) appreciably influences compatibility; compatibility appreciably influences user satisfaction as well as practical use; compatibility mediates associations among overall quality and either satisfaction and practical usage; actual use and the satisfaction of users appreciably influences TTF; the role of TTF presents positive influences performances; and TTF mediates associations among satisfaction and practical usage in one case and performance in another.

Investigating the process of learning with desktop virtual reality: A structural equation modeling approach

Abstract: Virtual reality (VR) is gaining attention for having the potential to enrich students’ educational experiences. However, few studies have investigated the process of learning with VR. With the use of structural equation modeling, this study investigated the affective and cognitive factors that play a role in learning with a desktop VR simulation when pre-to post-test changes in motivation, self-efficacy, and knowledge about genetics are used as outcomes. The sample consisted of 199 university students (120 females), who learned from a desktop VR genetics simulation as a mandatory part of an undergraduate medical genetics course. The results indicated that there were two general paths by which desktop VR led to increases in the amount of learning following a VR lesson: an affective path that went through VR features, presence, intrinsic motivation, and self-efficacy; and a cognitive path that went through VR features, usability, cognitive benefits, and self-efficacy. It is concluded that learners may benefit from desktop VR simulations in which efficacious VR features and a high level of usability are emphasized.

Investigating learning outcomes and subjective experiences in 360-degree videos

Abstract: Virtual Reality experiences, particularly the 360-degree video, have become popular in recent years for creating immersive educational experiences. However, much is still unknown regarding the educational effectiveness of this medium. Here we examined pre-to-post changes in well-being, simulator sickness, and learning outcomes across four devices of varying levels of immersion: a smartphone, Google Cardboard, Oculus Rift DK2, and Oculus CV1 using a space-themed 360° educational video. More immersive devices induced greater induction of place illusion, greater positive affect, and better learning outcomes while demonstrating low prevalence of simulator sickness. Greater immersion was also associated with an increased interest in learning more about the video's subject-matter. On the other hand, less immersive technology led to increased simulation sickness which may have led to suboptimal educational experiences. Overall, we found support for the hypothesis that highly immersive experiences using 360° videos provide positive educational experiences while minimizing simulator sickness.

Categorising teachers’ use of social media for their professional learning: A self-generating professional learning paradigm

Abstract: The proliferation of online resources and an increase in accessibility has led teachers to go online to connect, share ideas and expand their own professional learning opportunities on social media platforms. Over the last five years there has been a resurgence in this field to research what teachers are doing in and with social media. Knowing that teachers are networking or collecting resources misses the fundamental premise for such action, which in turn, does little for understanding social media use as a professional learning activity. This study takes one step back, to investigate the reasoning for particular social media use. Through a qualitative paradigm, expert ICT teachers were interviewed about their conceptualisations of professional learning and related activities online. These recognized ICT-experts from Australia, Europe and United States of America were purposely selected due to a personal and professional impetus to maintain currency with innovative ideas in this ever-changing field. These expert teachers engaged in social media in different ways based on their conceptualisations of professional learning in these online spaces. The findings present a typology of reasoning based along two continuums, Self and Interactivity. These axioms defined four categories of teacher engagement online: Info-consumer; info-networker; self-seeking contributor; and vocationalist. A new paradigm of professional development is presented which has important implications for understanding the role of social media in teacher professional learning as well as in reshaping what we consider as effective professional development.

Learning to code or coding to learn? A systematic review

Abstract: The resurgence of computer programming in the school curriculum brings a promise of preparing students for the future that goes beyond just learning how to code. This study reviewed research to analyse educational outcomes for children learning to code at school. A systematic review was applied to identify relevant articles and a thematic analysis to synthesise the findings. Ten articles were included in the synthesis and an overarching model was developed which depicts the themes. The results demonstrate that although students are learning to code, a range of other educational outcomes can be learnt or practiced through the teaching of coding. These included mathematical problem-solving, critical thinking, social skills, self-management and academic skills. The review also identified the importance of instructional design for developing these educational outcomes through coding.

How is the use of technology in education evaluated? A systematic review

Abstract: There are a large variety of methodologies, contexts and perspectives that have been used to evaluate the use of technology in education. The vast array of literature involving learning technology evaluation makes it challenging to acquire an accurate sense of the different aspects of learning that are evaluated, and the possible approaches that can be used to evaluate them. This study conducted a systematic review of how technology use in education has been evaluated, based on 365 papers published in Computers and Education between 2015 and 2017. The papers analyzed encompassed a diverse range of education levels, disciplines and technologies, that were broadly commensurate with characterizations of the learning technology field from other studies. The analysis found that the evaluation of learning technology use tended to focus on eight themes: learning outcomes, affective elements, behaviors, design, technology elements, pedagogy, presence, and institutional environment. In the majority of studies (66.6%) at least one established instrument was used to evaluate the effectiveness of learning technology usage, however, a wide variety of instruments were observed within sub-themes of evaluation. The 22 instruments used to evaluate an aspect of learning technology usage in more than one study are identified. Evaluation trends for different disciplines, technologies and educational levels are also established. The findings provide an analytical framework that educators and researchers can utilize when evaluating the use of technology in education, and could potentially inform the development of new, more holistic and more robust evaluation methods.

Improving quality of teaching and learning in classes by using augmented reality video

Abstract: This study contributes to enhancing students’ learning experience and increasing their understanding of complex issues by incorporating an augmented reality (AR) mobile application (app) into a sewing workshop in which a threading task was carried out to facilitate better learning relative to a conventional approach. Participants included 46 freshmen. One group of students was provided with a handout, while the other was asked to view an AR video. Questionnaires were then administered, and the results showed a significant difference between the two groups in terms of their understanding of the task. This finding was consistent with the post-test scores and the time required to learn the threading task. Several feedback items indicated higher learning efficiency with the use of AR videos.

Affective computing in education: A systematic review and future research

Abstract: It is becoming a trend to apply an emotional lens and to position emotions as central to educational interactions. Recently, affective computing has been one of the most actively research topics in education, attracting much attention from both academics and practitioners. However, despite the increasing number of papers published, there still are deficiencies and gaps in the comprehensive literature review in the specific area of affective computing in education. Therefore, this study presents a review of the literature on affective computing in education by selecting articles published from 2010 to 2017. A review protocol consisting of both automatic and manual searches is used to ensure the retrieval of all relevant studies. The final 94 selected papers are reviewed and relevant information extracted based on a set of research questions. This study classifies selected articles according to the research purposes, learning domains, channels and methods of affective recognition and expression, and emotion theories/models as well as the emotional states. The findings show the increased number and importance of affective computing studies in education domain in recent years. The research purposes of most affective computing studies are found to be designing emotion recognition and expression systems/methods/instruments as well as examining the relationships among emotion, motivation, learning style, and cognition. Affective measurement channels are classified into textual, visual, vocal, physiological, and multimodal channels, while the textual channel is recognized as the most widely-used affective measurement channel. Meanwhile, integration of textual and visual channels is the most widely-used multimodal channel in affective computing studies. Dimensional theories/models are the most preferred models for description of emotional states. Boredom, anger, anxiety, enjoyment, surprise, sadness, frustration, pride, hopefulness, hopelessness, shame, confusion, happiness, natural emotion, fear, joy, disgust, interest, relief, and excitement are reported as the top 20 emotional states in education domain. Finally, this study provides recommendations for future research directions to help researchers, policymakers and practitioners in the education sector to apply affective computing technology more effectively and to expand educational practices.

A case study of immersive virtual field trips in an elementary classroom: Students’ learning experience and teacher-student interaction behaviors

Abstract: The academic evidence for examining the educational influences of immersive virtual reality (VR) with head-mounted displays (HMD) has been relatively limited until now, in particular for virtual field trips which allow teachers to guide students to explore learning elements in virtual environments. This study therefore invited 24 elementary school students to engage in an immersive virtual field trip which was part of a 2-week summer camp on the learning subject of social studies. The students' learning experiences (i.e., perceived presence, motivational beliefs change, and attitudes) were investigated and the teacher-student interaction behaviors in the learning activity were explored. The results showed that the students' motivation was generally enhanced, particularly for the diminishment of test anxiety. The important role of the perceptions of spatial presence and experienced realism in the students’ motivational beliefs was also addressed. Moreover, different behavioral patterns of teacher-student interactions during the process of the virtual field trips were identified by lag sequential analysis. This work started a pedagogical research to probe how HMD-based VR technology was applied in classrooms for teachers to lead their students on virtual field trips. The proposed instructional strategies for appropriately guiding students to learn during the process of immersive virtual field trips were also the contribution of this study.

Cognitive load in multimedia learning environments: A systematic review

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to review articles involving cognitive load and multimedia learning between 2015 and 2019 in a systematic way. 94 articles were reviewed in terms of the types of cognitive load, multimedia learning principles, cognitive load measurements, the investigated dependent and independent variables, cognitive processes, the types of multimedia learning environments and the demographic characteristics of the studies. The results revealed that reviewed studies indicated the type of cognitive load seem to have investigated the extraneous cognitive load more frequently. The most studied multimedia learning principles in reviewed articles were modality principle, seductive details effect and signaling/cueing principle respectively. Most reviewed cognitive load studies on multimedia learning were conducted by researchers in Europe, especially in Germany, followed by Asia, America, Australia, and Africa. Research results showed that most cognitive load studies in multimedia learning environments conducted thus far have utilized STEM subjects. Higher education students were the primary participant group in the cognitive load in multimedia learning research as well. There was a tendency to use subjective methods more often than objective methods to measure cognitive load in investigations. In addition to cognitive load, learning, prior knowledge, and motivation were measured most frequently in these studies. In the reviewed studies, multimedia design, material type, presentation format, and individual differences were the most selected focus of research. Research results were interpreted and a number of gaps in cognitive load research relating to multimedia learning were identified.

Review of ontology-based recommender systems in e-learning

Abstract: In recent years there has been an enormous increase in learning resources available online through massive open online courses and learning management systems. In this context, personalized resource recommendation has become an even more significant challenge, thereby increasing research in that direction. Recommender systems use ontology, artificial intelligence, among other techniques to provide personalized recommendations. Ontology is a way to model learners and learning resources, among others, which helps to retrieve details. This, in turn, generates more relevant materials to learners. Ontologies have benefits of reusability, reasoning ability, and supports inference mechanisms, which helps to provide enhanced recommendations. The comprehensive survey in this paper gives an overview of the research in progress using ontology to achieve personalization in recommender systems in the e-learning domain.

The interactivity of video and collaboration for learning achievement, intrinsic motivation, cognitive load, and behavior patterns in a digital game-based learning environment

Abstract: This study investigated how the use of an instructional video and collaboration influenced the learning achievement, intrinsic motivation, cognitive load, and learning behaviors of students learning Newtonian mechanics within a digital game-based learning (DGBL) environment. The participants were 109 seventh-grade students who were randomly assigned to one of four experimental groups, forming a 2 × 2 factorial design, with the presence or absence of an instructional video as one factor and collaboration as the other. With regard to learning achievement, the findings revealed a significant main interaction effect between the use of an instructional video and collaboration. While collaborative DGBL promoted intrinsic motivation, the results for cognitive load showed that the use of an instructional video in collaborative DGBL significantly reduced both intrinsic and extraneous cognitive loads. The implications for designing game-based science learning are discussed.

Exploring two decades of research on classroom dialogue by using bibliometric analysis

Abstract: Classroom dialogue is a commonly used method for teaching and learning, and a close study of dialogue has increasingly become an active field of research. In order to have a comprehensive overview of the field, a bibliometric analysis was conducted on 3914 papers published from 1999 to 2018 retrieved from WoS database in relation to classroom dialogue. Specifically, we analyzed trends in publications and citations, recognized prolific authors, institutions and journals, identified geographical publication distributions, visualized the characteristics of collaboration among authors, institutions, and countries/regions, as well as revealing the evolution of themes over the past 20 years. Findings include, firstly, the fact that publications and citations in relation to classroom dialogue have grown consistently over the past 20 years. Secondly, the USA has contributed dramatically more publications, especially since the year 2012. Thirdly, scientific collaborations in perspectives of country/region, institution and author can be explored by accessing the dynamic social networks. Fourthly, thematic features in relation to research on classroom dialogue were revealed by analyzing keywords, with several recurring keywords being identified throughout the period (e.g. ‘classroom’, ‘discourse’, ‘student’) and at the same time, new keywords have emerged (e.g. ‘technology’, ‘computer-mediated communication’), which reflect the shifting trends in the field. This work is useful in terms of indicating the current status of research to scholars as well as practitioners, enabling them to be more aware of the research hotspots when making decisions about which topic to address.