Showing papers in "Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education in 2009"

Examining TPACK Among K-12 Online Distance Educators in the United States

Abstract: With the increasing popularity and accessibility of the Internet and Internetbased technologies, along with the need for a diverse group of students to have alternative means to complete their education, there is a major push for K-12 schools to offer online courses, resulting in a growing number of online teachers. Using the Tailored Design survey methodology (Dillman, 2007), this study examines a national sample of 596 K-12 online teachers and measures their knowledge with respect to three key domains as described by the TPACK framework: technology, pedagogy, content, and the combination of each of these areas. Findings indicate that knowledge ratings are highest among the domains of pedagogy, content, and pedagogical content, indicating that responding online teachers felt very good about their knowledge related to these domains and were less confident when it comes to technology. Correlations among each of the domains within the TPACK framework revealed a small relationship between the domains of technology and pedagogy, as well as technology and content (.289 and .323, respectively). However, there was a large correlation between pedagogy and content (.690), calling into question the distinctiveness of these domains. This study presents a beginning approach to measuring and defining TPACK among an ever-increasing number of K-12 online teachers.

Mathematics Teacher TPACK Standards and Development Model

Abstract: What knowledge is needed to teach mathematics with digital technologies? The overarching construct, called technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge (TPACK), has been proposed as the interconnection and intersection of technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge. Mathematics Teacher TPACK Standards offer guidelines for thinking about this construct. A Mathematics Teacher Development Model describes the development of TPACK toward meeting these standards. The standards and model provide structured detail to further the work of various groups. The proposals may guide teachers, researchers, teacher educators, professional development consultants, and school administrators in the development and evaluation of professional development activities, mathematics education programs, and school mathematics programs. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1) 5 In 1986 Lee Shulman launched a new way of thinking about the knowledge teachers need for teaching with a construct that he called pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). This new way of thinking about the knowledge teachers need for teaching called for the integration of content knowledge (the knowledge previously considered the primary knowledge for teachers) and pedagogical knowledge (the knowledge about teaching and learning). The intersection of these two knowledge bases, PCK, was described as the way of representing and formulating subject matter knowledge, the knowledge that makes the subject matter comprehensible to learners (Shulman, 1986, 1987; Wilson, Shulman, & Richert, 1987). More specifically, Shulman (1986) characterized a teacher’s PCK as knowledge of the most regularly taught topics in one’s subject area, the most useful forms of representation of those ideas, the most powerful analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations, and demonstrations ... including an understanding of what makes the learning of specific concepts easy or difficult: the concepts and preconceptions that students of different ages and backgrounds bring with them to the learning. ( p. 9) During those early discussions of the construction of knowledge growth in teaching, teacher preparation programs were challenged to determine how they might guide the development of this teacher knowledge. Some programs honed in on the development of six primary domains of knowledge essential for effective instruction: subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, knowledge of schools, knowledge of learners, and curricular knowledge, with PCK as the essence of the intersection of these five domains of knowledge (Niess, 2001). The relationship was viewed as a complex and integrated structure where no domain was totally distinct or separate from the other, with the relative amount of overlap and interaction among the domains constantly changing as preservice teachers made sense of and prioritized the multiple factors affecting student learning. Attention to PCK through research studies provided insight into the preparation of preservice mathematics teachers’ development of PCK (Ball, 1988; Civil, 1992; Grossman, 1991; McDiarmid, 1990; Simon & Brobeck, 1993; Simon & Mazza, 1993; Wilcox et al., 1990). Grossman’s (1989, 1990) research identified four central components of PCK to focus the description and understanding of the knowledge needing development in the preparation programs: (a) an overarching conception of what it means to teach a particular subject; (b) knowledge of instructional strategies and representations for teaching particular subject matter topics; (c) knowledge of students’ understandings, thinking, and learning in the subject area; (d) knowledge of curriculum and curriculum materials with learning subject matter (Borko & Purtnam, 1996). As this understanding of PCK evolved, modern digital technologies also began to be recognized as useful for teaching and learning. During the late 1970s and 1980s, the focus in mathematics education was on identifying places in mathematics instruction for inserting digital technology applications. A myriad of software programs afforded drill and practice in a variety of environments that were more entertaining than traditional paper-and-pencil worksheets for providing practice with computational skills. Graphing calculators offered capabilities for efficiently generating visuals of graphs useful for demonstrating mathematical ideas such as slope and y-intercept for linear functions and points of intersection for multiple functions. The primary vision for employing mathematical digital technologies was for demonstration and verification of ideas previously developed in the classroom. Calculators – from limited four-function calculators to scientific calculators – were Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1) 6 restricted with the belief that these tools trivialized the mathematics rather than engaging students in learning mathematics. The lack of an in-depth integration of these technologies prompted Kaput’s (1992) lament that the “major limitations of computer use in the coming decades are likely to be less a result of technological limitations than a result of limited human imagination and the constraints of old habits and social structures” (p. 515). An examination of mathematics teachers’ PCK in the late 1980s and early 1990s revealed an overarching conception that teachers’ beliefs about how to teach mathematics generally were aligned with how they learned mathematics. Although a few teachers embraced the use of graphing calculators, spreadsheets, and software like Logo and Geometric Supposer, many did not. Mathematics teachers’ knowledge of instructional strategies and representations for teaching particular mathematical topics relegated the application of such digital technologies to demonstration, verification, and drill and practice. Their knowledge of students’ understandings, thinking, and learning in mathematics held to the importance of mastery of skills with paper and pencil prior to using modern digital technologies (Kastberg & Leatham, 2005; Walen, Williams, & Garner, 2003; Yoder, 2000). Furthermore, access to technology without necessary knowledge of related curriculum materials did not encourage teachers to incorporate the technology in their classroom instruction (Kastberg & Leatham, 2005). “In the absence of professional development on instructional technology and curriculum materials that integrate technology use into the lesson content, teachers are not particularly likely to embed technology-based or technology-rich activities into their courses” (Ferrini-Mundy & Breaux, 2008, p. 437438). Fast forward to 2008 to see that many mathematics teachers’ PCK lacks a solid and consistent integration of modern digital technologies in mathematics curriculum and instruction. Technologies, such as dynamic geometry tools or advanced graphing calculators with computer algebra systems (CAS), are primarily used for modeling and providing examples, where students imitate the actions and use the technologies for verification, demonstration, and drill and practice. In essence then, while digital technologies have evolved, strategies for their effective integration into the learning of mathematics have not evolved as rapidly. Mathematics TPACK: The Total Package for Teaching Mathematics As time shifted and digital technologies became more accessible and incorporated into citizens’ work and play, the International Society for Technology and Education (ISTE) challenged teachers to think about the technology skills and knowledge students would need in an increasingly technology savvy society. By the turn of the 21st century, the National Education Technology Standards for Students (NETS-S; ISTE, 2000) were released with the goal of supporting the evolution of effective use of appropriate technologies in school settings. ISTE recognized that these new standards called for different teacher knowledge than was currently operating in the schools. Within the following 2 years, the National Educational Technology Standards for Teachers (NETS-T; ISTE, 2002) were also released. Although embedded in a rapidly changing digital society, little real instructional change filtered into classrooms. Therefore, ISTE moved to shift the focus of the NETS-S from basic skills and knowledge needed to operate the technology to learning how to effectively use the technology; the NETS-S were updated in 2007. Subsequently, to assist Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1) 7 teachers in responding to the call of learning environments supported by multiple technologies, a revision of the teacher standards was released in 2008. These standards effectively shifted the focus on digital technologies toward a concern about the curriculum and instructional uses of the digital tools and resources. Earle (2002) framed this shift most clearly: Integrating technology is not about technology – it is primarily about content and effective instructional practices. Technology involves the tools with which we deliver content and implement practices in better ways. Its focus must be on curriculum and learning. Integration is defined not by the amount or type of technology used, but by how and why it is used. (p. 8) Numerous researchers focused on the integration of technology, content, and pedagogy in much the same way that Shulman described PCK, to gain a broader perspective on the knowledge teachers need for teaching with technology. In essence, they defined technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) as that body of knowledge teachers needed for teaching with and about technology in their assigned subject areas and grade levels. TPCK was presented as the interconnection and intersection of content, pedagogy (teaching and student learning), and technology (Margerum-Leys & Marx, 2002; Mishra & Koehler, 2006; Niess, 2005; Pierson, 2001). The idea of TPCK developed to the point that the American Association of Colleges of

A Qualitative Approach to Assessing Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Abstract: Because technological pedagogical content knowledge is becoming an increasingly important construct in the field of teacher education, there is a need for assessment mechanisms that capture teachers’ development of this portion of the knowledge base for teaching. The paper describes a proposal drawing on qualitative data produced during lesson study cycles to assess teachers’ development of technological pedagogical content knowledge. The specific qualitative data sources include teachers’ written lesson plans, university faculty members’ reviews of lessons, transcripts and videos of implemented lessons, and recordings and transcripts of debriefing sessions about implemented lessons. Using these data sources, inferences about teachers’ technological pedagogical content knowledge are drawn and validated. An example of the implementation of this lesson study technological pedagogical content knowledge (LS-TPACK) assessment model is provided. The example includes inferences drawn about high school teachers’ technological pedagogical content knowledge in the context of two lesson study cycles that involved teaching systems of equations with graphing calculators. Reflections on the strengths and weaknesses of the LS-TPACK model are included from a qualitative perspective, as well as from a psychometric perspective.

Enhancing TPACK with Assistive Technology: Promoting Inclusive Practices in Pre-service Teacher Education

Abstract: As the global community continues the transition from an industrialized factory model to an information and now participatory networked-based society, educational technology will play a pivotal role in preparing students for their futures. Many teacher preparation programs are failing to provide preservice teachers with the knowledge, skills, and dispositions necessary to adopt and utilize technology effectively. This paper presents an enhanced technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge (TPACK) model that adds assistive technology as a means to promote inclusive educational practice for preservice teachers. This model offers substantive promise for improving learning outcomes for students with disabilities and other traditionally marginalized populations who receive the majority of their classroom instruction in general education settings. This paper extends the TPACK model by providing specific examples of how assistive technology and instructional technology are distinct yet overlapping constructs. Essential technology skills for preservice teachers and strategies supporting inclusive educational practice are identified.

Strategies for Preparing Preservice Social Studies Teachers to Effectively Integrate Technology: Models and Practices

Abstract: In this paper, we will discuss strategies we have used to assist pre-service social studies teachers with understanding and applying models and practices for effectively integrating technology into their future classrooms – thus strengthening the link between technology and pedagogy (or technological pedagogical content knowledge). Our efforts with pre-service teachers has been informed by our successes assisting in-service teachers with understanding how technology can empower inquiry-based teaching practices in social studies classrooms. Strategies for Preparing Pre-Service Social Studies Teachers to Effectively Integrate Technology: Models and Practices

GeoThentic: Designing and Assessing with Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Abstract: GeoThentic, an online teaching and learning environment, focuses on engaging teachers and learners in solving real-world geography problems through use of geospatial technologies. The design of GeoThentic is grounded on the technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge (TPACK) framework as a metacognitive tool. This paper describes how the TPACK framework has informed the authors’ design endeavors and how a set of assessment models within GeoThentic can be used to assess teachers' TPACK.

Toward a Virtual Field Trip Model for the Social Studies

Abstract: In the current state of social studies education, field trips are being cut from many schools’ curriculum. While not a true substitution, today’s technologies provide some opportunities through virtual field trips (VFTs) to simulate these experiences, engage students in knowledge production and disciplined inquiry, and have interactions with the dedicated staff members from these historic sites. Many of the current VFTs, however, fall short of this goal and instead serve as an updated form of a content delivery model, with little interaction or student engagement in historical issues. This article describes research on field trips, hybrid distance learning models, and virtual field trips in the social studies and other areas, as well as a critical case study of one of the most prominent and long lasting virtual field trips, Colonial Williamsburg’s Electronic Field Trip program. A model for future social studies VFTs and ways to integrate these VFTs into authentic social studies instruction are developed. The case study revealed a number of key issues that arise in the development and execution of VFT programs, and the ensuing VFT model should be helpful for teachers and VFT developers.

National Educational Technology Standards and Technology Beliefs and Practices of Social Studies Faculty: Results From a Seven-Year Longitudinal Study

Abstract: This paper presents the findings from the third survey administration of a longitudinal study that explores the beliefs, practices, and efficacy of social studies faculty members from across the United States in terms of instructional technology use. The findings of this study demonstrate that familiarity with the National Educational Technology Standards , as well as confidence with technology, are related to the frequency and type of technology that social studies faculty members utilize in their courses. This survey is particularly significant because it reports on the field’s beliefs and practices over time, and results can influence policy, funding, and future research.

Prospective Elementary Teachers Gone Wild? An Analysis of Facebook Self- Portrayals and Expected Dispositions of Preservice Elementary Teachers

Abstract: This study was conducted in response to several recent incidents in which teachers and student teachers were reprimanded for content they placed on the Internet. This study examined the Facebook postings of preservice elementary teachers to determine the extent to which these postings are congruent with expected dispositions. Profiles were analyzed to determine the appropriateness of the content, and when inappropriate, the nature of the behavior depicted on the site. Findings indicated that 32% of elementary education majors in this study had an unrestricted profile on Facebook, and only 22% of those profiles were devoid of inappropriate content. These numbers are likely conservative due to other networking sites that may be in use. The nature of the inappropriate behavior is cause for concern for teacher educators who are expected to teach and assess dispositions and who must decide whether or not a prospective teacher is ready for the ethical responsibility of teaching children.

Preservice Biology Teachers’ Use of Interactive Display Systems to Support Reforms-Based Science Instruction

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to explore preservice science teachers’ use of an interactive display system (IDS), consisting of a computer, digital projector, interactive white board, and Internet connection, to support science teaching and learning. Participants included 9 preservice biology teachers enrolled in a master of teaching program during their full-time student teaching experience. Each participant had access to an IDS for the duration of the investigation. The research questions guiding the investigation included (a) whether teachers would use the IDS for instructional purposes, (b) what form this instruction would take, and (c) whether the instruction would reflect the recommendations of current science education reform documents. Analytic induction was used to analyze the wide variety of collected data, including classroom observation notes, entrance and exit interviews, lesson plans, and reflective essays. Results indicated that student teachers used the IDS in substantial ways to facilitate teaching reforms-based science. Furthermore, the results support the use of explicit approaches to preparing preservice teachers to use educational technology for inquiry instruction, modeling of effective uses of digital images and video clips, and specific instruction on whole-class inquiry methods.

A comparison study of web-based and traditional instruction on pre-service teachers’ knowledge of fractions

Abstract: This study investigated the comparative efficiency of Web-based instruction (WBI) and traditional teaching methods on preservice teachers’ fraction knowledge. Students’ knowledge of fractions was measured using a Fraction Knowledge Test. The test consisted of 32 items and was administered as preand posttests to a total of 42 preservice teachers in two intact classes at the same university. One of the classes was randomly assigned as the experimental group (n = 21) and was given WBI. The other class was assigned as a control group (n = 21) and was given traditional instruction. Analysis of covariance was used to determine treatment effects on students’ knowledge of fractions when the pretest result was used as a covariate. The analysis of results showed a statistically significant difference between the experimental and the control groups’ posttest mean scores in favor of the experimental group.

TPACK: A Framework for the CITE Journal

Abstract: In 1986 Lee Shulman proposed that crucial aspects of pedagogical practice are uniquely connected to specific content areas and coined the term “pedagogical content knowledge.” Extension of the concept to “technological pedagogical content knowledge” (now referred to as technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge, or TPACK) in recent years recognizes the central role of content and pedagogy in uses of educational technology – a role previously missing in many discussions. Even though some technologies may indeed facilitate student learning, content and pedagogy are crucial ingredients in this success. If the pedagogical content knowledge required for each discipline differs, it follows that the ways in which technology might best be used for each discipline may also differ. During the same era in which this concept was being articulated (see Mishra & Koehler, 2005, for an overview of the history), several teacher educator content associations and educational technology associations formed a collaborative organization. The participating representatives possessed a common belief that technology should be introduced in the context of content instruction and that teachers should take advantage of the unique features of technology to teach content in ways they otherwise could not. This consortium, which subsequently evolved into the National Technology Leadership Coalition (NTLC), was grounded in the ideas that were later incorporated in the TPACK framework.

On the Outs: Learning Styles, Resistance to Change, and Teacher Retention

Abstract: This study examined the relationship between learning style, level of resistance to change, and teacher retention in schools implementing an intensive schoolwide technology and media integration model. Researchers found that teachers with ST (sensing-thinking) and SF (sensing-feeling) learning style preferences, as described by the MyersBriggs Type Inventory, had higher levels of resistance to change. Teachers with the ST learning style were also three times more likely to leave their schools, compared to teachers with other learning style preferences. Implications for policy and practice are discussed. In particular, teachers with the ST learning style preference may require additional support to enable them to adapt to changes within the dynamic environment of a school undergoing an intensive technology reform effort.

Fight the Dragons: Using Online Discussion to Promote Critical Literacy in Teacher Education

Abstract: Today’s children are bombarded by a range of media, and it is the responsibility of teachers to equip students to engage critically. Just as teachers are responsible to teach critical literacy, teacher educators must help empower teachers to become more critically literate. This paper explores the role of online discussion in the ways it fosters critical literacy by analyzing the online discourse of the teachers in an online literature course. Implications relating to both the online nature of teaching and the various strategies to foster critical literacy in everyday classrooms are described.

Ten Ways to Incorporate Technology into a TESOL Teacher Preparation Program.

Abstract: A comprehensive approach for integrating technology into a TESOL teacher preparation program is described. Ten specific ways to assure constructivist technology use in teacher education are highlighted. These techniques have been synthesized into a compact model with three pillars: (a) electronic assessment system (e-portfolios for individual assessment and program evaluation), (b) teacher candidates’ technology-based course assignments and performances, and (c) Web-based instruction and communication. The authors claim that within this three-pronged model flexibility of implementation is key to success for preservice and in-service teachers.