Showing papers in "Economic Botany in 2013"

The Evolution of Fruit Tree Productivity: A Review.

Abstract: The Evolution of Fruit Tree Productivity: A Review. Domestication of fruit trees has received far less attention than that of annual crop plants. In particular, very little is known about the evolution of fruit tree productivity. In the wild, most tree species reach reproductive maturity after a long period of juvenility and even then, sexual reproduction appears sporadically, often in a mode of masting. Environmental constraints limit trees’ reproductive activity in their natural, wild habitats, resulting in poor, irregular productivity. Early fructification and regular, high rates of productivity have been selected by people, unconsciously and consciously. The reviewed evidence indicates an evolutionary continuum of productivity patterns among trees of wild habitats, intermediary domesticates, and the most advanced domesticates. Alternate bearing appears to represent an intermediate step in the fruit tree evolutionary pathway. The existence of a molecular, genetic mechanism that controls trees’ sexual reproduction and fruiting pattern is suggested.

Ethnobotany, Traditional Knowledge, and Diachronic Changes in Non–Timber Forest Products Management: A Case Study of Himatanthus drasticus (Apocynaceae) in the Brazilian Savanna1

Abstract: Ethnobotany, Traditional Knowledge, and Diachronic Changes in Non–Timber Forest Products Management: A Case Study of Himatanthus drasticus (Apocynaceae) in the Brazilian Savanna. The analysis of factors and processes that affect the traditional knowledge and the management practices deriving from it are essential for devising conservation strategies for non–timber forest products. The purpose of this study is to assess the traditional knowledge and analyze diachronic changes in management systems for non–timber forest products in a case study of an intensely exploited species from the Brazilian savanna, Himatanthus drasticus, commonly known as “janaguba.” Janaguba produces a latex of commercial value, widely used in popular medicine in Brazil. Recent pharmacological evidence of its medicinal properties has increased harvesting pressure on this resource. For this reason, we carried out an ethnobotanical characterization of the management systems used to harvest janaguba latex and of the traditional ecological knowledge associated with such practices. Three management systems were identified in latex harvesting, which may have varying ecological impacts on janaguba populations, depending on the amount of bark removed and the time interval between harvestings. Among the factors that can influence changes in the management systems over time are market pressure and growing demand for the product, loss of traditional knowledge, the system of land tenure, and the biological characteristics of the species, especially its high biomass regeneration capacity.

Relationship between Use Value and Ecological Importance of Floristic Resources of Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest in the Balsas River Basin, México

Abstract: Relationship between Use Value and Ecological Importance of Floristic Resources of Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest in the Balsas River Basin, Mexico. The use of seasonally dry tropical forest in the Balsas River Basin, Mexico was utilized as a model to study the relationship between the use value and the ecological importance of wild flora in nine study sites that have an indigenous-Mestizo cultural gradient. Ethnobotanical data from the area were used to obtain the use value per species and correlate it with the ecological importance value of the species found in 0.9 ha. We test the hypothesis that the most used species are the most ecologically important and that this relationship is affected by the changing cultural process that occurs in Mexican rural communities. We registered 320 species, 56.25 % of which are useful and fall into twelve use categories. The study sites showed similar percentages of useful plants. We found relationships between the use value of the species and of the main categories (medicinal, construction, firewood, and food) with the ecological importance value. The frequency was the ecological attribute that determined the use of species in the main categories of use, while the density and dominance attributes were related respectively to the medicinal and food categories. There were differences regarding cultural groups. Indigenous groups mentioned the use of medicinal, edible, and firewood plants more frequently, whereas the Mestizo group pointed out more species used for construction.

Traditional Knowledge and Management of Caryocar coriaceum Wittm. (Pequi) in the Brazilian Savanna, Northeastern Brazil1

Abstract: Traditional Knowledge and Management of Caryocar coriaceum Wittm. ( Pequi ) in the Brazilian Savanna, Northeastern Brazil Caryocar coriaceum Wittm. (pequi) is a tree native to northeastern Brazil that produces fruits of importance to human populations of the region. This species serves as a resource for the livelihoods of many people and represents a source of income in many rural communities in northeastern Brazil. This study aimed to evaluate the knowledge, use, collection practices, and forms of local management related to C. coriaceum in a rural community in the state of Ceara, Chapada do Araripe, northeast Brazil. Pequi collectors were identified and constituted the sample of respondents (N = 56). The knowledge of C. coriaceum is uniformly distributed in the community. The categories food and derivatives (oil) were the most relevant. Considering all use categories, there was a significant difference between the knowledge of men and women (p <0.05, 95% confidence interval) based on the Shannon-Wiener and Hurlbert’s PIE diversity indices. The main form of management applied to pequi trees was collection of its fruits, followed by the practice locally referred to as zelar (similar to the management practice “protection”) and sowing seeds. All of the informants stated that they commercialize pequi fruits. The mean income from fruit sales is less than the mean income obtained via selling pequi oil, as the latter product is of greater commercial value. Among the nine most relevant collection sites, Barreiro Novo (savanna) was highlighted, which is part of both a protected area and the anthropogenic landscape of the region, and has great economic and cultural importance for pequi collectors.

Economic Importance of the Medicinal Plant Trade in Sierra Leone 1

Abstract: Economic Importance of the Medicinal Plant Trade in Sierra Leone. This study identified, quantified, and evaluated the economic importance of the medicinal plant trade in Sierra Leone so that recommendations for conservation could be made. We carried out a quantitative market survey. We interviewed 120 vendors in three major cities and all vendors in two towns near a national park. Apart from the semistructured interviews, specimen samples were collected and identified, prices noted, and sales units measured. More than 40 species were traded in urban markets, nine species being the most frequently traded in all three cities. Only two plants were traded in the towns: Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A.Rich.and Garcinia kola Heckel. Most plants were traded in the form of dried bark or leaves. It was estimated that at least USD 64,000 are being annually traded in informal markets in major cities, the nine species most frequently traded contributing most of the retail value. Little information was found on import/export figures. Results from this study indicate that the trade of certain medicinal plants could be promoted as an alternative livelihood strategy for edge communities of protected areas. However, more information is needed on harvesting techniques, source and abundance of the species traded.

A Reward for Patience and Suffering: Ethnomycology and Commodification of Desert Truffles among Sahrawi Refugees and Nomads of Western Sahara

Abstract: A Reward for Patience and Suffering: Ethnomycology and Commodification of Desert Truffles among Sahrawi Refugees and Nomads of Western Sahara. This paper reflects on the role of ethnobiological knowledge and practices for refugees’ agency by focusing on the use and commodification of desert truffles among the Sahrawi refugees of Western Sahara. Historically, desert truffles of the genera Terfezia and Tirmania have been an important food and medicinal resource for Saharan nomads. Today, after becoming refugees following war and forced displacement, the Sahrawi still harvest truffles for their use values, but most are sold in the Algerian town of Tindouf. This paper addresses Sahrawi food, medicinal, and veterinary uses of desert truffles, and the on–going process of commodification sustained by a high international demand and the need for cash income. This process of commodification has both helped refugees to generate income and triggered a recovery of traditional knowledge around desert truffles. However, it has also led to increasing harvesting pressure and competition among truffle collectors, thus giving rise to the risk of unsustainable harvest levels.

Variation of Kernel Anthocyanin and Carotenoid Pigment Content in USA/Mexico Borderland Land Races of Maize

Abstract: Variation of Kernel Anthocyanin and Carotenoid Pigment Content in USA/Mexico Borderland Land Races of Maize. Maize is the only major cereal crop that displays abundant variation for health-promoting carotenoid and anthocyanin pigments. Traditional farmers in the USA/Mexico Borderland region utilize many land race varieties with diverse kernel characteristics reflecting enculturated preferences, including color. Food prepared using these varieties may provide benefits to human health, but the kernel pigment content, and grain physical and compositional traits, have not been characterized. Seed from 48 diverse accessions representing 18 races of maize originating from the Borderland region were obtained from Native Seeds/SEARCH and planted in replicated nurseries at two locations (Ohio and Arizona) in 2008. We visually determined kernel color and quantified total carotenoid and anthocyanin pigment content of samples obtained from these nurseries using spectrophotometric analysis. Nonpigmented (white) followed by yellow kernel colors were most abundant. Populations with high carotenoid pigment content (i.e., above 40 μg/g) were not observed, whereas many accessions produced ears with mixtures of red, purple, and blue kernels containing anthocyanin pigments. A wide range in anthocyanin pigment content was observed across and within populations—some kernels displayed concentrations above 50 mg/100 g. Kernel hardness was determined visually, and protein and oil content were determined by near-infrared spectrometric analysis. Flinty (hard) followed by floury (soft) kernel types were most abundant. Carotenoid content was highest in orange- and yellow-colored pop-type kernels. Anthocyanin content was highest in blue- and purple-colored floury and flint-type kernels. Kernel weight, protein, oil, and carotenoid content were significantly affected by location. Preservation of culturally-adapted varieties with diverse kernel pigments is important not only because of their genetic diversity—they also may contribute to enhanced human health and nutrition.

Wild Edible Herbs in Paddy Fields and Their Sale in a Mixture in Houaphan Province, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic

Abstract: Wild Edible Herbs in Paddy Fields and Their Sale in a Mixture in Houaphan Province, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Multiple wild edible herbs coexist in paddy fields under the agricultural practices used for growing rice. Paddy field vegetation was surveyed and the rural population’s perceptions and use of wild edible herbs were investigated in the northern Lao People’s Democratic Republic. A total of 115 wild herbaceous species were observed in the paddy fields of two villages; 52 species grew in fields, 95 on levees, and 63 on banks. Of these, 25 species were locally used, and 22 were sold as a mixture at the Xamneua market, with species composition varying by availability and season. The total number of edible greens increased during the summer season when available vegetables were scarce. Marsilea quadrifolia L. (Marsileaceae), the most abundant in the field and in the market, as well as Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. (Apiaceae), Eryngium foetidum L. (Apiaceae), Spilanthes oleracea L. (Asteraceae), and Monochoria hastata (L.) Solms (Pontederiaceae) were the most popular wild herbs sold. Wild edible herbs are called “phak”, which is also used to indicate cultivated vegetables, and clearly distinguishes them from the inedible herbs referred to as “nya.” Two methods are employed to gather wild edible herbs: some plants are uprooted as a way of thinning individuals, and other plants have only their young leaves picked so that they can be harvested repeatedly. Gathering and selling wild edible herbs was mainly conducted by women and children for whom it was a source of cash income. Thus, the relationships that exist between people and the wild plants they maintain as part of their farming activities can be considered an indicator of paddy field agrodiversity.

Farmers’ Varietal Identification in a Reference Sample of Local Phaseolus Species in the Sierra Juárez, Oaxaca, Mexico

Abstract: Farmers’ Varietal Identification in a Reference Sample of Local Phaseolus Species in the Sierra Juarez, Oaxaca, Mexico. Farmer-named varieties are often the basis of in situ diversity assessment, collections for ex situ conservation, and on-farm improvement programs. Such varieties play an important role in sustainable agriculture because of their adaptation to local environmental conditions and consumer tastes. The importance of these varieties has stimulated interest in understanding farmers’ varietal classifications. We investigated the empirical basis of, and agreement among, farmers’ bean variety classification in a community in the Sierra Juarez, Oaxaca, Mexico. A reference sample of 300 local seeds of three Phaseolus species was sorted by nine farmers into named varieties. Nuclear and chloroplast microsatellite markers and seed morphology data were used to a) establish species identities; and test the hypotheses that b) farmer varieties reflect morphological and genetic structures; and c) there is agreement among farmers in variety classification. Because all farmers sorted the same set of seeds the variation in individual farmers’ classifications could be documented and compared. Our results indicate an empirical basis for farmer varieties, but without stringent classification rules. Varietal names underestimated diversity present at the community level because of the intravarietal variation present in farmer classifications. There was low classification agreement among farmers, although broad morphological and genetic patterns were present. The variation in farmers’ classifications of this Phaseolus diversity resulted in both synonymy and homonymy across classifications. The goal of farmers may not be to maintain the same variety across households, but to form a version of a broad type that best fits their own needs and circumstances at one point in space and time. Thus, in both work with farmers and collections of their Phaseolus varieties for ex situ conservation it should not be assumed that same-named seed lots are redundant units of diversity. Morphological and/or molecular data should, therefore, supplement farmer varietal names in assessments of in situ crop diversity, while ex situ collections would benefit from the inclusion of multiple accessions of the same variety from different farmers, repeated over time.

The Consequences of Harvesting on Regeneration of a Non-timber Wax Producing Species (Euphorbia antisyphilitica Zucc.) of the Chihuahuan Desert

Abstract: The Consequences of Harvesting on Regeneration of a Non-timber Wax Producing Species ( Euphorbia antisyphilitica Zucc.) of the Chihuahuan Desert. For two centuries large quantities of non-timber candelilla (Euphorbia antisyphilitica Zucc., Euphorbiaceae) have been harvested from wild populations in northern Mexico. The wax that candelilla produces is used for various purposes by many different types of industries. Although extraction is regulated by the government, lack of ecological information has led to concern for overexploitation and population decreases. In the arid region of Cuatrocienegas, Coahuila, Mexico, we measured growth and reproduction in candelilla populations with variable harvest rates. Interviews were used to determine how harvest criteria and volume relate to plant performance and to learn about current extraction policies. We found the average annual harvest to be high (8,273.02 ± 2,076.09 kg/per person/per year) but the population size to be consistent (9,278 to 73,250 individuals/ha). Initial number of stems and height per plant at first census, time elapsed since last harvest, as well as seasonal changes affected individual plant performance. Relative growth rate (TR) was higher but also more variable among small plants relative to larger plants, making them more vulnerable to harvest effects. TR and fecundity rates are negatively affected when less than two years elapsed between harvests. Nowadays, although fewer local people work in candelilla extraction, those from the lowest socioeconomic brackets depend on it most. The incorporation of the ecological information obtained here into Mexican law will ensure better management of this NTFP resource. Also, improving the techniques of wax extraction and promoting fair trade to increase the price paid to producers could reduce the negative impacts on plant performance and ensure sustainable use of natural populations.

Sustainable Harvest of Mangaba ( Hancornia speciosa ) Fruits in Northern Minas Gerais, Brazil

Abstract: Sustainable Harvest of Mangaba (Hancornia speciosa) Fruits in Northern Minas Gerais, Brazil. The harvesting of non–timber forest products can contribute to conserving biodiversity and improving quality of life for rural communities. However, overexploitation can generate negative impacts on harvested populations, demanding the establishment of sustainable management practices. We estimated the maximum sustainable harvest of Hancornia speciosa Gomes (Apocynaceae) fruits in a savanna in northern Minas Gerais state, Brazil. The structure and population dynamics were analyzed in 70 permanent plots (20 x 50 m) in the years 2008–2011. A matrix population model based on life stages (seedlings, saplings, adults 1, adults 2) was used to calculate the population growth rate (λ), the stable stage distribution and the elasticity, and to simulate the effects of different fruit harvesting levels. The population growth rate (λ) value was 1.02 (CI95% 0.98 to 1.05), the maximum sustainable fruit harvest rate was 87%, and the elasticity analysis indicated that survival of the larger–size adults is the most important parameter to maintain the population. Apparently, the H. speciosa population is stable, which may indicate that the current harvesting level is not affecting population regeneration. However, other natural or anthropic disturbances, such as charcoal production and fire, can increase adult mortality, leading to population decline.

Plukenetia carolis-vegae (Euphorbiaceae) – A New Useful Species from Northern Peru

Abstract: William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, PO Box 299, Saint Louis, MO 63166-0299, USA Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, Instituto de Ecologia-UMSA, Campus Universitario, Cota Cota Calle 27, Apdo. Postal 10077 correo central, La Paz, Bolivia Instituto para el Desarrollo Local Sostenible y la Conservacion Biologica y Cultural AndinoAmazonica, San Martin 375, Trujillo, Peru *Corresponding author; e-mail: rainer.bussmann@mobot.org

Seed Use and Socioeconomic Significance in Kayapó Handicrafts: A Case Study from Pará State, Brazil

Abstract: Seed Use and Socioeconomic Significance in Kayapo Handicrafts: A Case Study from Para State, Brazil. We conducted an ethnobotanical survey of seed species utilized in necklaces and other artifacts commercialized by two Kayapo villages of Para State, Brazil. We also evaluated the local importance of these species and recent changes relevant to making handicrafts from local seeds. Fieldwork included participant observation, semistructured interviews, and specific interviews focusing on artifacts of 47 adults. The Index of Importance Value (IVs) was used to evaluate the importance, use, and knowledge of the surveyed species. Forty-two plant species are currently utilized. Of those, 32 were identified, being distributed in ten botanical families and 25 genera. The families Fabaceae (18 spp.) and Arecaceae (8 spp.) stood out for their floristic richness. Among the species with larger IVs, Ormosia flava and Sapindus saponaria were prominent. The exchange of seed knowledge between different generations and genders was also observed. The use of seeds as substitutes for industrially-manufactured glass beads enhances the value of traditional knowledge of plants and territories. The marketing of seed-derived handicrafts represents an alternative for income generation among the Kayapo Indians, while also promoting forest conservation.

Moon–Flower (Ipomoea alba, Convolvulaceae)—Medicine, Rubber Enabler, and Ornamental: A Review

Abstract: Moon–Flower ( Ipomoea alba , Convolvulaceae)—Medicine, Rubber Enabler, and Ornamental: A Review. Native to the Americas, moon–flower (Ipomoea alba) was first recorded by Europeans with its Taino common name in the 1520s. Subsequently, the species was reported from India with a Malayalam name in the 1660s. In the time between, the climbers had been transported around the world. A dominant reason for the spread was because of the medicinal uses the Europeans had learned in the Americas. Although the Spanish report of I. alba being used in making rubber in the Americas was published in the 1520s, no one realized it was that species until the 1800s. In part because of the early spread from its region of nativity into the Old World, scientists in Europe were confused about the origin of the species. As moon–flower was overshadowed by other medicinal species in the 1800s, people began to utilize the climbers for horticultural purposes.

Capsicum pubescens (Solanaceae) in Indonesia: Its History, Taxonomy, and Distribution

Abstract: Introduction Capsicum pubescens Ruiz & Pav. probably originated in the mid-elevations of Bolivia (Eshbaugh 1975) and has been domesticated since around 6,000 B.C.E. (DeWitt 1999:240–242). The species was originally described by Ruiz and Pavon at the end of the eighteenth century from plants in Peru (Ruiz and Pavon 1798:30–31). Heiser (1987:25) noted that C. pubescens was the most common pepper among the Incas, just as it is today in Cuzco, the former capital of the Incan empire. Morphologically, C. pubescens has distinctive characteristics compared to the other domesticated species, such as purple flowers (sometimes with a white center), black seeds, hairy leaves, and ecological adaptations to tropical highland climates. This species is still primarily cultivated in Andean South America; however, it is also cultivated in the Central American highlands, where it was likely introduced in the twentieth century (McLeod et al. 1982). Cultivation of C. pubescens in the rest of the world remains unknown (Basu and De 2003) or is very limited (Bosland and Votava 2000:19–20). There are very few papers on C. pubescens cultivation, especially outside the Americas, except for introductory trials of C. pubescens as a new cash crop in Nagano, Japan (Matsushima et al. 2010). In Southeast and East Asia, C. annuum L. and C. frutescens L., and occasionally C. chinense Jacq., are used as condiments, vegetables, and medicines; however, C. pubescens has not been reported outside of Indonesia. Djarwaningsih (1983) reported on C. pubescens from Indonesia, but this report was written in Indonesian and therefore very few researchers have cited it. Moreover, it contained very little information on the distribution and cultivation of C. pubescens because of its focus on the taxonomy and classification of the genus Capsicum in Indonesia. Therefore, in the present study, literature, specimen, field, and market surveys of C. pubescens were conducted to investigate its introduction into Indonesia and to reveal its present distribution and cultivation.

Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis, Moraceae) and Chataigne (A. camansi) for Food Security and Income Generation: The Case of Trinidad and Tobago

Abstract: Breadfruit ( Artocarpus altilis , Moraceae) and Chataigne ( A. camansi ) for Food Security and Income Generation: The Case of Trinidad and Tobago In 2009, a survey was conducted among 83 breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) and chataigne (A. camansi) farmers in five regions of Trinidad and Tobago, where breadfruit consumption has been stigmatized traditionally, to determine their perception of local consumers’ current attitudes to both crops and their response to this market. Breadfruit and chataigne, respectively, were grown as food for home consumption by 90.1% and 89.3%, for income by 67.9% and 65.3%, and for shading cocoa, the traditional use, by 63.0% and 61.3% of the farmers. Perceived consumer appreciation for these crops was rated as high to very high by 68.6% and 65.1% of farmers for breadfruit and chataigne, respectively; 50.6% and 56% gave similar ratings for consumer demand, while 61.4% and 57.8% thought the demand had increased over the last 10 years. Awareness of preparation methods for the fruits as food, as livestock feed, and for uses of the latex, leaves, and wood was reported. Estimated mean revenue for 2008 was USD 1,153.10 and USD 637.30 per farmer for breadfruit and chataigne, respectively. The results suggest that with increasing domestic demand these crops have become cash crops. Promotion of food and non-food uses will further increase farm incomes and the contribution of breadfruit and chataigne to food and nutrition security in Trinidad and Tobago.

Maintenance of Manioc Diversity by Traditional Farmers in the State of Mato Grosso, Brazil: A 20-Year Comparison

Abstract: Maintenance of Manioc Diversity by Traditional Farmers in the State of Mato Grosso, Brazil: A 20-Year Comparison. Few studies discuss agrobiodiversity in the Brazilian savanna, which is believed to be the geographical origin of manioc and is one of its centers of diversity. Using an ethnobotanical approach, we evaluated the varieties of manioc cultivated by traditional farmers in the region, comparing two years: 1992 and 2011. Participant observation and semistructured interviews were conducted in both years in the same communities—27 farms in 1992 and 30 in 2011. Area of cultivated land was measured, all the manioc varieties identified by the farmers were inventoried in the fields, and the crop density was estimated. Diversity was similar for both years (1992: 60 varieties, H’ = 1.53; 2011: 54 varieties, H’ = 1.52); however, the mean number of varieties per farmer decreased from 9.4 ± 4.5 to 5.4 ± 4.4. The frequency and abundance of the varieties also changed. Varieties that were uncommon or nonexistent in 1992 were found to be common and occupying larger crop areas in 2011, and vice versa. Agricultural activity has decreased considerably; the mean size of cultivated areas has been reduced by two-thirds, and the majority of young people are not engaged in agricultural activities at all or only part-time. These findings point to serious threats to local agrobiodiversity and the need to discuss ways to maintain it.

Ethnobotany, Availability, and Use of Lianas by the Kaingang People in Suburban Forests in Southern Brazil

Abstract: Ethnobotany, Availability, and Use of Lianas by the Kaingang People in Suburban Forests in Southern Brazil. Lianas are important components of tropical forests and also non-timber forest products (NTFPs). In this study we 1) record the species of lianas exploited by indigenous Kaingang people and their availability in the remnant forest patches around the city of Porto Alegre, Southern Brazil, 2) describe the harvesting and crafting techniques, and 3) estimate the amount of lianas sold as handicrafts in the main local market and the income obtained. Lianas are exploited exclusively for the handicrafts trade. Seven liana species, out of 31 found in forest remnants, are used by Kaingangs. Two of them account for 90% of all handicrafts sold and 40.5% of all liana stems in secondary growth remnants—Forsteronia glabrescens Mull.Arg. and Amphilophium paniculatum (L.) Kunth. Another three species are scarce and are exploited less. Raw material must be used within a few weeks and be continuously harvested. Kaingang harvesting strategy includes mechanisms to avoid overexploitation: the division of exploitation areas into plots that are left to rest for one year before a new harvesting campaign, and the family’s control of information about potential harvesting sites. The entire process, from collection to sale, is carried out by the Kaingang families without intermediaries, contrary to the most common pattern of NTFP market chains. Trading occurs only locally. Each family earns from USD 98.15 to USD 371.12 per month (30% to 115% of the minimum Brazilian salary). In one year each family consumed on average 10,328.40 meters of lianas in the manufacture of handicrafts for sale in the major fair in the city, which represents about 50% of the demand for lianas. We estimated that one hectare of unexploited forest can have on average a standing crop of 10,165.40 m of the most desired species. Market pressure regulates exploitation, a common pattern in NTFP use, but in this case leading to a mix of usually opposite trends—manufacture with increasingly sophisticated techniques, but using a few liana species and an increasing number of alternative materials.

Indigenous Use of Spinifex Resin for Hafting in North-Eastern Australia

Abstract: Resins and gums were an important resource for Indigenous Australians and were commonly used to haft stone blades to timber handles in the manufacture of axes, spears, knives, and adzes. Based on archival research, analysis of museum records and in situ field trials, we reconstruct the geography of historic spinifex resin use as well as other plant exudates in Queensland, eastern Australia. Results indicated that spinifex resin use was probably restricted to the semi-arid zone and north of the Tropic of Capricorn. Toward the coast and in subhumid and tropical areas, a variety of tree exudates were used. By adopting an interdisciplinary approach coupling archival research with field data, this study contributes to a better understanding of traditional plant use in Australia.

Rice (Oryza sativa L.): Seed–Size Comparison and Cultivation in Ancient Korea

Abstract: Rice ( Oryza sativa L.): Seed–Size Comparison and Cultivation in Ancient Korea. The measurements of carbonized rice kernels from seventeen archaeological sites across Korea were compared to show a diachronic kernel-size change over the period of ca. 1500 BCE-600 CE. The assemblages that predated ca. 1 BCE consisted of short and narrow grains whereas those after ca. 1 CE consisted of long and plump grains. The observed pattern indicates the cultivation of new rice varieties in the later period, although it is not clearly understood whether the new varieties were introduced from elsewhere or whether they evolved locally. A sudden change in rice harvesting tools accompanied this change in rice kernel sizes. The semi-lunar stone knife, which reaps ripe rice ears individually, was replaced by the iron sickle, which cuts a bundle of rice stalks all at once. The changes in rice kernel-size and harvesting tools suggest that the short and narrow grains did not ripen in a synchronous manner and were selectively harvested in ears on multiple occasions over an expanded time span, whereas the long and plump grains ripened in a synchronous manner and were harvested in stalks over a shorter time span. The nearly concurrent appearance of large-grained rice in the Korean and Japanese sites indicates that the new varieties spread rapidly across the Far East Asia region.

Shared and Separate Knowledge among Eight Cultural Groups Based on Ethnobotanical Uses of Rhododendron (Ericaceae) in Yunnan Province, China

Abstract: Shared and Separate Knowledge among Eight Cultural Groups Based on Ethnobotanical Uses of Rhododendron (Ericaceae) in Yunnan Province, China. Yunnan, a province in southwest China, is known for its cultural diversity of 25 ethnic minorities and its vast Himalayan biodiversity, especially of Rhododendron. Previous literature has shown that some cultural groups share ethnobotanical knowledge while other cultural groups keep their knowledge separate. We investigated factors that may lead to the sharing of knowledge based on the uses of rhododendron among seven cultural minorities (the Bai, Dulong, Lisu, Naxi, Nu, Tibetan, and Yi) and the Han majority. Semistructured interviews about rhododendrons were conducted with approximately 30 individuals in each cultural group. Cluster analyses and a new analysis method were conducted to determine the within-group homogeneity of knowledge of rhododendron uses to test hypotheses related to strength of cultural traditions. The Dulong, Lisu, and Nu were compared with each other as these groups share villages and languages. The Naxi, Tibetan, and Yi live predominantly with members of their cultural group, and are often monolingual; thus, these three cultural minorities were compared. The Bai and Han compose the final comparison as the Bai are increasingly interacting with the local Han majority as tourism grows in that area. The Bai, Dulong, Han, Lisu, and Nu had variable answers within each group, while the Naxi, Tibetan, and Yi have homogeneous knowledge of uses of rhododendron within their cultural group. Among the eight cultural groups compared for this study, factors such as sharing of language, overlap of living situation, and sharing of markets leads to non-homogenous knowledge of rhododendron uses among members of the same cultural group.

Nutritional Content of Scots Pine Inner Bark in Northern Fennoscandia

Abstract: Nutritional Content of Scots Pine Inner Bark in Northern Fennoscandia. The overall aim of this study was to determine the nutritional benefits of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) inner bark and to position this traditional food resource within the Sami diet. We hypothesized that the nutritional and sugar content of inner bark varied annually, seasonally, with location, and even on a tree–by–tree basis. We concluded that Scots pine inner bark is an energy–rich plant food that, due to its high fibrous content, could sustain energy levels during long–term physical activity. It is also rich in minerals, primarily calcium and potassium. From historical records, we know that inner bark was harvested during early summer and we propose that this mainly depends on raised starch levels in the tree during this season. Scots pine stands and individual trees showed a large variance of soluble sugars during June, which explains the spatial patterns of bark–peeling scars in the landscape. However, nutrients and sugars alone cannot explain this spatial pattern. Rather, it is the result of many factors, such as the migratory pattern (i.e., where people were residing at the time of the inner bark harvest), the weather in a particular year (late or early summer), the availability of other food resources, and logistical reasons including processing of the inner bark.

The Origin of Quamoclit (Ipomoea quamoclit, Convolvulaceae): A Review

Abstract: The Origin of Quamoclit ( Ipomoea quamoclit , Convolvulaceae): A Review. Although it was originally American, I. quamoclit reached Europe by the 1550s. The vines are recorded from both Europe and India in the 1500s and were taken to both places because of its medical uses. While the species is now known as a garden ornamental and weed, there is a complicated record dealing with its early Renaissance discovery, transport, and the names it brought with it or that were later applied. Several aspects of these topics are discussed.

Effects of Commercial Harvesting on Population Characteristics and Rhizome Yield of Anemone altaica

Abstract: Effects of Commercial Harvesting on Population Characteristics and Rhizome Yield of Anemone altaica. Commercial harvesting constitutes a direct threat to numerous non–timber forest products (NTFPs), but its ecological effects have not been well documented. Anemone altaica Fisch. ex C. A. Mey, a spring ephemeral plant found in temperate forests of Eurasia, is a traditional Chinese herb. Owing to medicinal value, its rhizomes have been harvested for commercial purposes in northwestern China for many years. This paper addresses the ecological effects of commercial harvesting on A. altaica populations under different harvest intensities. The results show that size–selective harvesting of rhizomes can increase population densities by asexual propagation. Currently, two– to three–year–old individuals derived from asexual propagation are the main targets of commercial harvesting. The increased demand in recent years has resulted in earlier and more intensive harvesting activities largely impacting the natural recovery of the harvested populations. For sustainable use of this traditional medicinal species, we recommend that a periodic harvest strategy of three to four years be adopted.

Nutritional Evaluation of Shoots of Two Rattans of Northeast India— Calamus flagellum Griff. ex Mart. and C. floribundus Griff. (Arecaceae) 1

Abstract: Rattans or climbing palms (Arecaceae) form an important component of tropical forest ecosystems (Corner 1966). They are important non–timber forest products (NTFPs) with considerable economic value. Globally, there are about 600 rattan species belonging to 13 genera; 51 species belonging to 4 genera occur in India. Rattans are mainly confined to three geographic regions in India—the Western Ghats, the Andaman Nicobar Islands, and Northeast India. Although rattans have long been one of the most popular raw materials for the furniture industry, they are also used as food and medicine in many parts of the world (Caius 1935). Many species of rattans are the sources of edible shoots or “palm hearts,” the inner cores of which are used as vegetables as well as in the preparation of several delicious and nutritious food items. The shoots are consumed either raw or cooked. Most species taste bitter when raw, but cooking reduces their bitterness. Rattan shoots are available in local markets in several Asian countries (Fig. 1). In Northeast India, Calamus tenuis Roxb. (Jati bet), C. erectus Roxb. (Jeng bet), C. flagellum Griff. ex Mart. (Raidang), and C. floribundus Griff. (Lejai bet /Bath–bet) are commonly used as vegetables. Although many other species are edible, they are scarce and hence not routinely used. Overexploitation and habitat destruction in recent years have led to a rapid decline in the natural populations of rattans. Many of the species are on the verge of extinction (Basu 1986; Johnson et al. 1996; Renuka 1996; Sastry 2002). Many South Asian countries, such as Laos PDR and Thailand, cultivate rattans commercially and even export dried rattan shoots to the United States and other western countries where they are considered a delicacy (Evans 2002; Evans and Sengdala 2002). Edible rattans with small diameter shoots are preferred for cultivation because they are easy to grow and more shoots are produced within a short period. In India, however, rattans used as vegetables are collected from the wild; they are yet to be cultivated. Two of the three commonly used edible rattans in Northeast India, C. flagellum and C. floribundus, have not been evaluated for their nutritional status. The present study focuses on the nutritional status of these rattan species and compares them with that of other routinely used vegetables—palm shoots, conventional vegetables, and bamboo shoots. The significance of rattan shoots in human nutrition and the need for their commercial cultivation is highlighted.

An Unusual Xylotheque with Plant Illustrations from Early Meiji Japan

Abstract: An Unusual Xylotheque with Plant Illustrations from Early Meiji Japan. Two unusual wood collections, reported previously in the collections of the Botanical Museum at Berlin-Dahlem and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, take the form of framed plant illustrations painted on boards made from the wood of the species illustrated. We present new finds of very similar wood collections in the Economic Botany Collection of the Harvard University Herbaria, a private collection in the U.K. (Loudon collection), and at the Koishikawa Botanical Garden of the University of Tokyo. A stamp on the reverse of the boards links all five collections to Chikusai Kato, an artist working at Tokyo University (now the University of Tokyo) in early Meiji Japan, under the direction of the preeminent nineteenth century Japanese botanist Keisuke Ito. New evidence from contemporary historical accounts indicates that more than 100 boards were ordered in June 1878 by Hiroyuki Katō, the first president of Tokyo University, most likely to support the early teaching of Western-influenced botanical science in Japan. However, while the boards had clear value for teaching, especially about useful plants, their unusual fusion of Western and Japanese influences also made them desirable craft objects that were collected and given as gifts during the early Meiji era.

Sustainable Use of Calathea lutea in Handicrafts: A Case Study from the Amanã Sustainable Development Reserve in the Brazilian Amazon

Abstract: Sustainable Use of Calathea lutea in Handicrafts: A Case Study from the Amana Sustainable Development Reserve in the Brazilian Amazon. This study evaluated the local harvest and use of Calathea lutea, an herb used in basket weaving by residents of floodplain communities in the Amana Sustainable Development Reserve (RDSA). C. lutea is associated with early successional stages of secondary vegetation or abandoned fields, often found alone in monospecific stands, called cauacuzais. We describe the biology and ecology of C. lutea, including distribution, abundance, and resource availability using GIS and field inventory methods. We measured the area of each surveyed and georeferenced C. lutea stand and estimated the production and consumption of mature stalks in this area. With this information, we estimated the current status of the extractive use of this plant. C. lutea grows vigorously and flowers continuously with an average of 1,699 (+/- 754) clumps ha-1 in the stands. The total 41 georeferenced stands cover an area of 26 ha, with an estimated 44,200 clumps and 850,000 mature stalks. In 2006, approximately 15,000 mature stalks were used by artisans, about 2 % of the available stock. Therefore, the present stock meets artisans´ demand with no evidence that the species is suffering from overharvesting. We also observed that the species inhibits plant succession due to its high capacity for dispersal, colonization, and permanence in secondary areas. It has, as a result, colonized about 50 % of high floodplain (varzea) areas formerly converted to agricultural fields in two of the four communities surveyed in this study. To establish more productive and healthy agroecosystems, we suggest enrichment of fallows with fruit and wood producing trees where C. lutea is less exploited.

Ethnobotanical Remedies for Acute Diarrhea in Central Anatolian Villages

Abstract: Ethnobotanical Remedies for Acute Diarrhea in Central Anatolian Villages. Acute gastrointestinal illness is a common, life–threatening complication for rural villagers in developing countries such as Turkey. Our study identifies and describes the classification schemes surrounding acute gastrointestinal illness, or diarrhea, and its folk treatments among Central Anatolian villagers. We conducted informal interviews with small groups of rural Turkish villagers in the spring of 2009, using scenarios, recall, free–listing, and ranked saliency techniques to amass information on knowledge and beliefs about diarrhea and its treatments. We also compared treatments from published ethnobotanical studies with 8 of 44 plants still used today. Foods available in the home as well as nearby wild plants were used by 96% of villagers to treat diarrhea. Species in the Rosaceae, Lamiaceae, and Asteraceae families were used most frequently. Villagers blended folk and biomedical concepts to explain their preferences for botanical remedies and to explain the perceived treatment efficacy.

Risk of Aluminum Exposure from Noni (Morinda citrifolia L.) Leaf Products1

Abstract: Accumulation of soil aluminum in plant tissues can increase aluminum exposure during use of botanical products for food or medicines. We determined the potential for excessive exposure to aluminum in leaves of Morinda citrifolia (Rubiaceae) trees growing in eight contrasting soils in four Western Pacific islands. Mean aluminum content of green leaves ranged from 47–536 μg⋅g-1 tissue dry weight among the eight sites. Mean aluminum content of yellow, senescing noni leaves ranged from 96–988 μg⋅g-1 tissue dry weight. The trees growing in acid soils exhibited greatly elevated aluminum concentration when compared with trees growing in alkaline soils, and leaves from one replication in acid soils exhibited 1659 μg·g-1 aluminum. Results indicate avoidance of old leaves and trees growing in acid soils would greatly reduce aluminum exposure during ingestion of M. citrifolia leaf products.

The Potential for Mahonia nervosa as a Wildcrafted Medicinal Product in the Pacific Northwest

Abstract: Introduction Mahonia nervosa (Pursh) Nutt. (dwarf Oregongrape, low Oregon-grape, dull Oregon-grape) is a common perennial understory shrub in the moist temperate forests of the Pacific Northwest (western Oregon and Washington). Many species of Mahonia (formerly included in the genus Berberis) contain berberine and other alkaloids (Greathouse and Watkins 1938; Suess and Stermitz 1981), and as such are used in herbal medicine for a variety of purposes (Brinker 2005; Drum 2000; Duke 1985). There is an established market for the roots of M. aquifolium (Pursh) Nutt. (tall Oregon-grape), a similar species also native to the region; however, M. nervosa is not widely marketed despite its greater abundance. Furthermore, little to no documentation of M. nervosa’s chemistry could be found, although at least one herbalist (Drum 2000) reports qualitatively on its medicinal uses and preparation. This research sought to characterize the chemical makeup of M. nervosa in comparison to M. aquifolium, and to assess its regeneration potential following various harvest methods. The work was done in collaboration with a small woodland owners’ cooperative in Oregon to assess whether harvesting Oregon-grape could be a viable alternative income source for family forest owners. Herbal supplement sales in the U.S. have increased every year since 2004, reaching $5.2 billion in 2011 (Blumenthal et al. 2012). Data on the importance of Oregon-grape relative to other medicinals grown in the region’s forests is scarce; however, there are several commercial suppliers and buyers in Oregon (Buttolph et al. 2011; Oregon State University 2012). Furthermore, Oregon-grape is considered to be a medicinal substitute for goldenseal (Vance et al. 2001), which has a threatened population and harvest restrictions. There are over 360,000 family forest owners (families owning between 1 and 10,000 acres) in Oregon and Washington, with an average ownership less than 50 acres (Butler 2008). Many owners cite timber production as a management objective that is secondary to recreation, natural preservation, and other amenity uses; however, investment and income production are still primary concerns for landowners. Non-timber forest products provide the potential for a small but continuous revenue source in the interim years between timber harvests. In fact, about 5 % of family forest owners in Oregon and Washington report having collected and sold non-timber forest products from their property (Butler et al. 2012). Oregon-grape regenerates vegetatively from roots and rhizome sprouting as well as from seed. Reestablishment of Oregon-grape cover following harvest depends on residual root or rhizomes left in the soil (Vance et al. 2001). Lonner (2002) studied M. nervosa regeneration following harvest in northern California and found that even partially (25 %) harvested areas did not regenerate to pre-harvest levels of rhizome biomass two years later. In the lower elevation, more productive western Oregon lowland forests, harvested sites might recover more quickly. Besides total biomass produc1 Received 16 October 2012; accepted 1 February 2013; published online 23 February 2013.