Showing papers in "Environmental Sciences Europe in 2012"

Impacts of genetically engineered crops on pesticide use in the U.S. -- the first sixteen years

Abstract: Genetically engineered, herbicide-resistant and insect-resistant crops have been remarkable commercial successes in the United States. Few independent studies have calculated their impacts on pesticide use per hectare or overall pesticide use, or taken into account the impact of rapidly spreading glyphosate-resistant weeds. A model was developed to quantify by crop and year the impacts of six major transgenic pest-management traits on pesticide use in the U.S. over the 16-year period, 1996–2011: herbicide-resistant corn, soybeans, and cotton; Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn targeting the European corn borer; Bt corn for corn rootworms; and Bt cotton for Lepidopteron insects. Herbicide-resistant crop technology has led to a 239 million kilogram (527 million pound) increase in herbicide use in the United States between 1996 and 2011, while Bt crops have reduced insecticide applications by 56 million kilograms (123 million pounds). Overall, pesticide use increased by an estimated 183 million kgs (404 million pounds), or about 7%. Contrary to often-repeated claims that today’s genetically-engineered crops have, and are reducing pesticide use, the spread of glyphosate-resistant weeds in herbicide-resistant weed management systems has brought about substantial increases in the number and volume of herbicides applied. If new genetically engineered forms of corn and soybeans tolerant of 2,4-D are approved, the volume of 2,4-D sprayed could drive herbicide usage upward by another approximate 50%. The magnitude of increases in herbicide use on herbicide-resistant hectares has dwarfed the reduction in insecticide use on Bt crops over the past 16 years, and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future.

Electric cars: technical characteristics and environmental impacts

Abstract: Electric vehicles have been identified as being a key technology in reducing future emissions and energy consumption in the mobility sector. The focus of this article is to review and assess the energy efficiency and the environmental impact of battery electric cars (BEV), which is the only technical alternative on the market available today to vehicles with internal combustion engine (ICEV). Electricity onboard a car can be provided either by a battery or a fuel cell (FCV). The technical structure of BEV is described, clarifying that it is relatively simple compared to ICEV. Following that, ICEV can be ‘e-converted’ by experienced personnel. Such an e-conversion project generated reality-close data reported here. Practicability of today's BEV is discussed, revealing that particularly small-size BEVs are useful. This article reports on an e-conversion of a used Smart. Measurements on this car, prior and after conversion, confirmed a fourfold energy efficiency advantage of BEV over ICEV, as supposed in literature. Preliminary energy efficiency data of FCV are reviewed being only slightly lower compared to BEV. However, well-to-wheel efficiency suffers from 47% to 63% energy loss during hydrogen production. With respect to energy efficiency, BEVs are found to represent the only alternative to ICEV. This, however, is only true if the electricity is provided by very efficient power plants or better by renewable energy production. Literature data on energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission by ICEV compared to BEV suffer from a 25% underestimation of ICEV-standardized driving cycle numbers in relation to street conditions so far. Literature data available for BEV, on the other hand, were mostly modeled and based on relatively heavy BEV as well as driving conditions, which do not represent the most useful field of BEV operation. Literature data have been compared with measurements based on the converted Smart, revealing a distinct GHG emissions advantage due to the German electricity net conditions, which can be considerably extended by charging electricity from renewable sources. Life cycle carbon footprint of BEV is reviewed based on literature data with emphasis on lithium-ion batteries. Battery life cycle assessment (LCA) data available in literature, so far, vary significantly by a factor of up to 5.6 depending on LCA methodology approach, but also with respect to the battery chemistry. Carbon footprint over 100,000 km calculated for the converted 10-year-old Smart exhibits a possible reduction of over 80% in comparison to the Smart with internal combustion engine. Findings of the article confirm that the electric car can serve as a suitable instrument towards a much more sustainable future in mobility. This is particularly true for small-size BEV, which is underrepresented in LCA literature data so far. While CO2-LCA of BEV seems to be relatively well known apart from the battery, life cycle impact of BEV in categories other than the global warming potential reveals a complex and still incomplete picture. Since technology of the electric car is of limited complexity with the exception of the battery, used cars can also be converted from combustion to electric. This way, it seems possible to reduce CO2-equivalent emissions by 80% (factor 5 efficiency improvement).

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) — main concerns and regulatory developments in Europe from an environmental point of view

Abstract: Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) are the most investigated substances of the group of per- and polyfluorinated chemicals (PFCs). Whereas for PFOS regulatory measures are already in force on international level (inclusion in Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants) such activities are missing for PFOA. The environmental concerns of PFOA, which are summarized in the present study, underline the necessity of regulatory measures on an international level for PFOA. Since it seems more likely to agree on a regulation within the European Union first, a regulatory strategy based on the European chemicals regulation REACH (EC No. 1907/2006), is discussed in the present study. PFOA is persistent in the environment, ubiquitous present in surface waters, and subject to long-range transport. It accumulates in biota, especially in top predators. PFOA is increasingly analyzed in food items, and in drinking water. PFOA’s intrinsic properties such as its persistency (P), its potential for bioaccumulation (B) and its toxicity (T) suggest that PFOA is a promising candidate for being identified as a Substance of Very High Concern (SVHC) under REACH. Because of the dispersive occurrence of PFOA in the environment, the presence in imported products, and the use of PFCs, which can degrade to PFOA in various consumer products, a restriction under REACH seems to be the most effective regulatory measure to minimize human and environmental exposure to PFOA in the European Union. Due to its intrinsic properties, PFOA fulfills the REACH PBT-criteria. The next regulatory step will be the identification of PFOA and its ammonium salt (APFO) as SVHC according to REACH and the addition to the REACH Candidate List. As a second step, a restriction proposal will be prepared to include both substances and precursors into REACH Annex XVII.

Biological effects monitoring in marine research

Abstract: The biological effects monitoring plays an important role in marine monitoring. Contaminants and their effects on fish as well as on other marine organisms belong to the main topics of international monitoring schemes. Biomarkers, as the measures of biological effects, have to meet essential requirements to be recommended on an international level. Among the prerequisites are assessment criteria to describe the main thresholds: to background contamination on one hand and to unacceptable effects and harm to the organism on the other hand. This article describes strategies and drawbacks of choosing and applying marker of contaminant effects to marine field samples. It reflects the actual stage of international guidelines for biological effects monitoring in marine fish and provides an outlook on future use of biomarker as part of an integrated assessments of the marine ecosystem. This goal is addressed in the EU marine strategy framework directive and other international programs. With this article we want to point out that the future of marine environmental assessment of contaminants will be closely linked to integrated monitoring - the combination of chemical monitoring and biological effects monitoring. Biological effects techniques are ready for this challenge.

Microbially induced deterioration of architectural heritages: routes and mechanisms involved

Abstract: Since ancient time, magnificence and beauty have been the goals of architecture. Artists and architects used high strength, durable and beautiful stones like marble and limestone for the construction of monuments like Taj Mahal, Milan Cathedral, Roman Catacombs and Necropolis in Rome etc. These historic monuments are exposed to open air which allows the invading army of algae, cyanobacteria, fungi etc. to easily access them. The invasion of microorganisms and their subsequent interaction with mineral matrix of the stone substrate under varied environment conditions fosters deterioration of stones by multiple mechanisms resulting in loss of strength, durability, and aesthetic appearance. The review details about the major routes and mechanisms which led to biodeterioration, discusses current remedial methodologies and suggests future directions.

Primary NO2 emissions and their impact on air quality in traffic environments in Germany

Abstract: The decreasing NOX concentrations at urban measurement stations in Germany are in agreement with the reduction of NOX emissions from vehicular traffic. However, the measured NO2 concentrations are stagnating nationwide. In 2010, at more than the half of the urban measurement stations in Germany, annual mean values for NO2 exceeded the new Europe-wide limit value of 40 μg/m3 (20 ppbv) NO2. Similar findings are reported from many other member states of the European Union. The observed trend of the airborne NO2 concentrations has different reasons. Firstly, the NO2/NOx emission ratio has increased significantly during the last two decades. Furthermore, secondary NO2, caused by the titration reactions of NO with ozone (O3) and peroxy radicals (RO2), is responsible for the major fraction (approximately 70%) of the measured NO2. However, secondary NO2 shows a highly nonlinear dependency on NOx and thus, is decreasing much more slowly than expected from the decreasing NOx levels. Based on the results from the present study, the increased NO2/NOX emission ratio can only explain a minor fraction of the observed high airborne NO2 concentration in the city center. A further reduction of primary NO2 emissions, due to improved exhaust gas treatment, will not have a strong influence on urban NO2 levels, and a further significant reduction of the NOX emissions, in particular from vehicular traffic, is necessary in order to meet the annual mean limit value for NO2 of about 20 ppb in the future.

The NORMAN Network and its activities on emerging environmental substances with a focus on effect-directed analysis of complex environmental contamination

Abstract: The need to look beyond the conventional target pollutants when assessing the hazards of chemicals to human health and to ecosystems is now generally recognised as a priority issue in all environmental policy areas at both the European level and national level in the various countries. It has also become clear that it is not possible for individual countries alone to develop the knowledge and methodologies needed for measuring and evaluating the effects and associated risks of a vast number of emerging pollutants. Further to these priority needs, the NORMAN project (http://www.norman-network.net) was funded in 2005 by the European Commission in order to promote the creation of a permanent network among reference laboratories and research centres, in collaboration with the parties involved (industry, standardisation bodies, NGOs, etc.), to ensure (i) a more rapid and wide-scope exchange of data and information on the occurrence and effects of emerging substances, (ii) better data quality and comparability via validation and harmonisation of common measurement methods (chemical and biological) and monitoring tools, (iii) more transparent information (need for information, not just data) and (iv) the establishment of an independent and competent forum for the technical/scientific debate on issues related to emerging substances. NORMAN plays a significant role as an interface organisation between science and policy, with the advantage of speaking with a “bigger voice” to the European Commission and other public institutions. The activities of the network range from a scientific watch and the feeding of data on emerging substances into NORMAN databases (information gateway on emerging pollutants) to the organisation of working groups and workshops (producing position papers on research priorities), the setting-up of interlaboratory studies and the organisation of measurement campaigns. This article presents the objectives and scope of the activities of the NORMAN network, together with a summary of its concrete achievements after six years of existence. Moreover, the article gives a special insight in the work done by the NORMAN Working Group on effect-directed analysis for the identification of hazardous pollutants.

Levels and trends of industrial chemicals (PCBs, PFCs, PBDEs) in archived herring gull eggs from German coastal regions

Abstract: Polychlorinated biphenyls [PCBs], perfluorinated compounds, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers [PBDEs] were retrospectively analyzed in archived herring gull (Larus argentatus) eggs from the North and the Baltic Sea over the last 20 years. The aim was to assess temporal trends and effects of regulatory measures. PCBs (sum of 7 congeners) were highest in eggs from the North Sea island Trischen, i.e., 3,710 to 20,760 ng/g lipid weight [lw] compared to 2,530 to 11,650 ng/g lw on the North Sea island Mellum and 4,840 to 9,190 ng/g lw on the Baltic Sea island Heuwiese. During the study period, PCBs decreased significantly. Concentrations of PFOS ranged between 46 and 170 ng/g wet weight [ww] at Trischen, 39 to 99 ng/g ww at Mellum, and 20 to 159 ng/g ww at Heuwiese. Since 2000 and 2003, concentration levels decreased in eggs from Mellum and Heuwiese, respectively. Perfluorooctanoic acid was the dominant perfluorinated carboxylic acid in the North Sea eggs (Trischen 2.0 to 74 ng/g ww; Mellum 2.6 to 118 ng/g ww), whereas perfluoroundecanoate [PFUnA] and perfluorodecanoate [PFDA] (means 3.9 ± 3.6 ng/g and 2.9 ± 2.3 ng/g ww, respectively) dominated in the Baltic Sea eggs. At all three locations, longer-chained perfluorinated carboxylic acids (perfluorononanoate, PFDA, PFUnA, perfluorododecanoate) increased during the monitoring period. PBDE concentrations (sum of 35 congeners) in eggs were in the ranges of 282 to 2,059 ng/g lw (Mellum), 116 to 1,722 ng/g (Trischen), and 232 to 2,021 ng/g lw (Heuwiese). Congeners associated with commercial Penta- and Octa-BDE formulations decreased during the study period. No decrease was observed for technical Deca-BDE. Effects of regulatory measures were apparent for PCBs and Penta- and Octa-BDE, while no consistent trend is noticeable for PFOS.

Determination of lipid content in fish samples from bioaccumulation studies: contributions to the revision of guideline OECD 305

Abstract: The bioaccumulation potential of chemical substances is commonly determined in flow-through fish tests according to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) technical guideline (TG) 305, aiming at the determination of bioconcentration factors (BCF). Investigations on aquatic organisms have shown a significant positive correlation between the accumulation of a chemical and the lipid content of organisms. Residue levels can thus differ between individuals, species, and size groups depending on their lipid content. BCF values can be normalized by lipid content; however, this requires the use of appropriate extraction techniques to ensure the complete extraction of total lipids from fish/tissue samples. The OECD TG 305 is currently under revision. A literature review was carried out to select preferred methods which shall be included in the updated OECD TG 305 along with a sampling schedule for lipid measurement in fish. An overview and appraisal of a broad range of lipid extraction methods is presented. Extraction procedures applied in bioaccumulation studies described in the literature and procedures currently used for such studies by governmental, academic, and industrial labs are surveyed. Possible impacts of unsuitable extraction techniques on lipid normalized BCF results were assessed. Default values for BCF normalization commonly used in bioaccumulation studies are described. The effect of differences in residue distribution over different organs and/or lipids on the normalization of BCF values is discussed. A broad range of procedures for lipid extraction are available. However, only the use of suitable extraction techniques guarantees the complete extraction of total lipids from fish samples in bioaccumulation studies which is required to ensure the correct lipid normalization of BCF values. Preferred methods for inclusion in the updated OECD 305 test guideline as well as a standard schedule for lipid measurements are suggested.

A decision tree for assessing effects from exposures to multiple substances

Abstract: The Cefic Mixtures Industry Ad-hoc Team (MIAT) has investigated how risks from combined exposures can be effectively identified and managed using concepts proposed in recent regulatory guidance, new advances in risk assessment, and lessons learned from a Cefic-sponsored case study of mixture exposures. A series of tools were created that include: a decision tree, a system for grouping exposures, and a graphical tool (the MCR-HI plot). The decision tree allows the division of combined exposures into different groups, exposures where one or more individual components are a concern, exposures that are of low concern, and exposures that are a concern for combined effects but not for the effects of individual chemicals. These tools efficiently use available data, identify critical data gaps for combined assessments, and prioritize which chemicals require detailed toxicity information. The tools can be used to address multiple human health endpoints and ecological effects. The tools provide a useful approach for assessing risks associated with combined exposures to multiple chemicals.

Influence of application techniques on the ecotoxicological effects of nanomaterials in soil

Abstract: In terrestrial ecotoxicological tests, the availability and ecotoxicity of solid nanomaterials may depend on the application technique. We compared five spiking procedures using solid uncoated TiO2 and Ag nanoparticles in standardized OECD tests with earthworms, plants and soil microflora: dry spiking of soil by applying soil or silica sand as a carrier; dry spiking of food without a carrier; and wet spiking of soil and food with an aqueous nanoparticle dispersion. The effects of the nanomaterials were influenced by the application technique. The differences were independent of the test organism (which represented different habitats and exposure pathways) and the specificity of the effect (stimulation or inhibition). Wet spiking resulted in stronger effects than dry spiking, but the bioavailability of the particles appeared to be limited when highly-concentrated nanoparticle suspensions were used for wet spiking. The availability of the nanoparticles was slightly lower when silica sand rather than soil was used as the carrier for dry spiking, but the matrix itself (soil or food) had no effect. There are indications that the concentrations of the stock suspensions influence the test results, so dry spiking is preferred for solid TiO2 and Ag nanoparticles. We achieved satisfactory spiking homogeneity with Ag nanoparticles using soil as a solid carrier. Further experiments with other carriers and soil types are required to confirm that the observed differences are universal in character. There was no difference in effect when TiO2 nanoparticles were applied via food or soil. The spiking of soil instead of food is preferred for TiO2 nanoparticles, as is the case for conventional chemicals.

A controversy re-visited: Is the coccinellid Adalia bipunctata adversely affected by Bt toxins?

Abstract: In 2008/2009, Schmidt and colleagues published a study reporting lethal effects of the microbial Bt toxins Cry1Ab and Cry3Bb on the coccinellid biological control organisms Adalia bipunctata. Based on this study, in concert with over 30 other publications, Mon810 cultivation was banned in Germany in 2009. This triggered two commentaries and one experimental study all published in the journal 'Transgenic Research' that question the scientific basis of the German ban or claim to disprove the adverse effects of the Bt toxins on A. bipunctata reported by Schmidt and colleagues, respectively. This study was undertaken to investigate the underlying reasons for the different outcomes and rebuts the criticism voiced by the two other commentaries. It could be demonstrated that the failure to detect an adverse effect by Alvarez-Alfageme and colleagues is based on the use of a significantly different testing protocol. While Schmidt and colleagues exposed and fed larvae of A. bipunctata continuously, Alvarez-Alfageme and colleagues applied an exposure/recovery protocol. When this exposure/recovery protocol was applied to a highly sensitive target insect, Ostrinia nubilalis, the lethal effect was either significantly reduced or disappeared altogether. When repeating the feeding experiments with the Bt toxin Cry1Ab using a combined protocol of both previous studies, again, a lethal effect on A. bipunctata larvae was observed. ELISA tests with Bt-toxin fed larvae and pupae confirmed ingestion of the toxin. The new data corroborates earlier findings that Cry1Ab toxin increases mortality in A. bipunctata larvae. It was also shown that the different applied testing protocols explained the contrasting results. See related article http://www.enveurope.com/content/24/1/9

Surveying the occurrence of subspontaneous glyphosate-tolerant genetically engineered Brassica napus L. (Brassicaceae) along Swiss railways

Abstract: Railway tracks represent a highly interlinked habitat with numerous possibilities for accidental entry of oilseed rape due to seed spill during transportation. Moreover, glyphosate is regularly employed to control the vegetation, increasing the possibility of establishment for plants resistant to it. We surveyed the presence of genetically engineered glyphosate tolerant oilseed rape (Brassica napus) with a focus on the most important Swiss railway stations. Our objective was to detect accidental establishment of transgenic plants, since Switzerland does not import nor cultivate transgenic oilseed rape. Seventy-nine railway areas were sampled in Switzerland and the Principality of Liechtenstein, and the feral presence of oilseed rape was detected in 58 of them. A total of 2403 individuals were tested for genetic modification using commercially available immunologic test kits. In four localities, one located in Lugano and three in the area of Basel, a total of 50 plants expressing the CP4 EPSPS protein were detected. In two of the localities, survival of herbicide applications was observed. The populations were probably introduced through contaminated seed spills from freight trains, or during the transfer of goods from cargo ships to trains. Railways represent an ideal system for herbicide resistant transgenic plants to establish and spread as a result of high selective pressure in favour of herbicide resistance with consequent increased difficulties to keep the infrastructure free of weeds. Crop-to-wild gene flow can occur as several sexually compatible species which are congeneric or in allied genera to oilseed rape were found growing sympatrically. Moreover, the capillary presence of railways in the agricultural landscape provides a putative source of contamination of GE-free agriculture. Our results suggests that carefully adapted monitoring designs may be set in order to detect introduction events that can lead to rapid establishment and growing populations as the accepted contamination thresholds are likely to be biologically insufficient to prevent further environmental contamination.

An application of a decision tree for assessing effects from exposures to multiple substances to the assessment of human and ecological effects from combined exposures to chemicals observed in surface waters and waste water effluents

Abstract: A decision tree has been developed for evaluating risks posed by combined exposures to multiple chemicals. The decision tree divides combined exposures of humans and ecological receptors into groups where one or more components are a concern by themselves, where risks from the combined exposures are of low concern, and where there is a concern for the effects from the combined exposures but not from individual chemicals. This paper applies the decision tree to real-world examples of exposures to multiple chemicals, evaluates the usefulness of the approach, and identifies issues arising from the application. The decision tree was used to evaluate human health and ecological effects from the combined exposure to 559 mixtures of substances measured in surface waters and effluents. The samples contained detectable levels of 2 to 49 substances. The key findings were, 1) the need for assessments of the combined exposures varied for ecological and human health effects and with the source of the monitoring data, 2) the majority of the toxicity came from one chemical in 44% of the exposures (human health) and 60% of exposures (ecological effects), 3) most cases, where risk from combined exposures was a concern, would have been identified using chemical-by-chemical assessments. Finally, the tree identified chemicals where data on the mode of action would be most useful in refining an assessment. The decision tree provided useful information on the need for combined risk assessments and guidance on the questions that should be addressed in future research.

Effect of TiO2 nanoparticles in the earthworm reproduction test

Abstract: The increasing use of nanotechnology means that nanomaterials will enter the environment. Ecotoxicological data are therefore required so that adequate risk assessments can be carried out. In this study, we used a standardized earthworm reproduction test with Eisenia andrei to evaluate three types of TiO2 nanoparticles (NM-101, NM-102, NM-103). The test was performed in natural sandy soil (RefeSol 01A) following Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Test Guideline No. 222. The nanoparticles differed in several aspects, such as crystalline structure, size, and the presence or absence of a coating. Uncoated nanoparticles stimulated earthworm reproduction in a concentration-dependent manner during winter testing, increasing the number of offspring by up to 50% compared to the control. However, there was no stimulation when the same test was performed in the summer. This reflected an underlying circannual rhythm observed in the control soil, characterized by the production of a significantly larger number of juveniles in summer compared with that in winter. The effect of the uncoated TiO2 nanoparticles was to reduce or eliminate the circannual differences by increasing the reproductive rate in winter. Coated TiO2 nanoparticles did not influence earthworm reproduction. TiO2 appears to affect earthworm reproductive activity by abolishing the circannual rhythm that depresses reproduction in the winter. Further experiments will be necessary to determine (1) the mode of action of the nanoparticles, (2) the important parameters causing the effect (e.g., relevant soil parameters), and (3) the environmental relevance of continuous earthworm reproduction we observed under laboratory conditions.

Micropollutants in three tributaries of Lake Constance, Argen, Schussen and Seefelder Aach: a literature review

Abstract: A literature review made evident that in three tributaries of Lake Constance, Argen, Schussen and Seefelder Aach 82 micropollutants (including 3 metabolites of pesticides) were detected in at least one of the streams. Quality standards according to the EU Water Frame Directive (which however comprises only 16 of the detected chemicals) are not exceeded in any of the streams. The comparison of maximal values with existing threshold values and effect concentrations obtained in ecotoxicological analyses and biomarker studies revealed 35 substances to be of relevance in at least one of the three waters. These were 5 chemicals in the Argen, 31 chemicals in the Schussen, and 17 chemicals in the Seefelder Aach, for which effects on mortality, development, health or reproduction in aquatic organisms cannot be excluded.

Dangerous cosmetics - criteria for classification, labelling and packaging (EC 1272/2008) applied to personal care products

Abstract: Cosmetic products need not be classified and labelled according to the Regulation on Classification, Labelling and Packaging (CLP) in the European Union, even if they contain dangerous substances. What would happen without this exception? Would cosmetic products have to be labelled if they were treated like any other consumer product? The criteria of the CLP Regulation were applied to a selection of cosmetic product formulas in a conservative approach. All but one product contain hazardous ingredients in amounts that would lead to classification and labelling of the mixtures. 85% of the products analyzed would have to be labelled because of potential negative effects to the eye, and 52% because of potential negative effects to the skin. The signal word WARNING would have to be on the labels of 64%, DANGER would have to be on 33% of the products. The results here show that it is urgent to inform consumers about the potential dangers of personal care products, because cosmetics need to be applied even with more care than any other consumer product. Classification and labelling according to the CLP Regulation is a very good means to improve the risk communication for consumers. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that the exception for cosmetic products should be repealed in the next amendment of the CLP Regulation.

Underlying reasons of the controversy over adverse effects of Bt toxins on lady beetle and lacewing larvae

Abstract: We outline important underlying reasons that fuel the decades-long controversy over adverse effects of Bt toxins expressed in genetically modified plants on beneficial, nontarget organisms. Inconsistent evaluation standards and asymmetrical levels of scrutiny applied to studies reporting significant adverse effects compared to those finding no adverse effects are described using the examples of the green lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea) and the two-spotted lady beetle (Adalia bipunctata). Additionally, the chosen style and concerted nature of the rather confrontational counter study and responses in the lady beetle cases bear striking similarities to other reported examples in the field of biosafety/risk science of genetically modified plants and to other fields of applied industrial techno-science that suggest deeper issues that go well beyond science. We call for a constructive and respectful scientific discourse where moving the frontiers of our collective knowledge forward takes center stage. Reported phenomena based on robust data must not be rejected or delegitimized on their being surprising and lacking an explained mechanism at the time of their discovery. Exploring mechanisms often requires entirely different expertise and methodologies than those of the discoverers. In particular, in biosafety/risk sciences, plurality of arguments and critical research approaches have to be embraced and actively encouraged rather than discredited or even silenced if we are to learn our 'late lessons' from past technology introductions.

Emission factors and chemical characterisation of fine particulate emissions from modern and old residential biomass heating systems determined for typical load cycles

Abstract: It is already well known that there are significant differences regarding the emissions, especially particulate matter (PM) emissions, of old and modern as well as automatically and not automatically controlled biomass based residential heating systems. This concerns their magnitude as well as their chemical composition. In order to investigate emission factors for particulate emissions and the chemical compositions of the PM emissions over typical whole day operation cycles, a project on the determination and characterisation of PM emissions from the most relevant small-scale biomass combustion systems was performed at the BIOENERGY 2020+ GmbH, Graz, Austria, in cooperation with the Institute for Process and Particle Engineering, Graz University of Technology. The project was based on test stand measurements, during which relevant operation parameters (gaseous emissions, boiler load, flue gas temperature, combustion chamber temperature etc.) as well as PM emissions have been measured and PM samples have been taken and forwarded to chemical analyses. Firstly, typical whole day operation cycles for residential biomass combustion systems were specified for the test runs. Thereby automatically fed and automatically controlled boilers, manually fed and automatically controlled boilers as well as manually fed stoves were distinguished. The results show a clear correlation between the gaseous emissions (CO and OGC) and the PM1 emissions. It is indicated that modern biomass combustion systems emit significantly less gaseous and PM emissions than older technologies (up to a factor of 100). Moreover, automatically fed systems emit much less gaseous and PM emissions than manually fed batch-combustion systems. PM emissions from modern and automatically controlled systems mainly consist of alkaline metal salts, while organic aerosols and soot dominate the composition of aerosols from old and not automatically controlled systems. As an important result comprehensive data concerning gaseous and PM emissions of different old and modern biomass combustion systems over whole day operation cycles are now available. Derived from these data, correlations between burnout quality, particulate emissions as well as particle composition of the PM emissions can be deduced.

Population level risk assessment: practical considerations for evaluation of population models from a risk assessor's perspective

Abstract: Population models are increasingly being considered as a tool for pesticide risk assessment in order to evaluate how potential effects act on the population level and population recovery. While the importance and difficulties of such models have been discussed by various authors during the past decade, mainly with a focus on how to describe or develop such models, several biological and methodological aspects have never been addressed so far, which are relevant for the application of models in risk assessment. These include a critical review of our knowledge of a species, the use of field data by taking methodological constraints into account, how to include uncertainty in model validation or how to measure effects. Although these aspects will be critical for the acceptance of population models by authorities, most of them apply not only to population models, but also to standard risk assessment. In the present article, we give practical recommendations for addressing these questions in population level risk assessments.

Does spatial auto-correlation call for a revision of latest heavy metal and nitrogen deposition maps?

Abstract: Within the framework of the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution atmospheric depositions of heavy metals and nitrogen as well as critical loads/levels exceedances are mapped yearly with a spatial resolution of 50 km by 50 km. The maps rely on emission data and are calculated by use of atmospheric modelling techniques. For validation, EMEP monitoring data collected at up to 70 sites across Europe are used. This spatially sparse coverage gave reason to test if the chemical and physical relations between atmospheric depositions and their accumulation in mosses collected at up to 7000 sites throughout Europe can be quantified in terms of statistical correlations which, if proven, could be used to calculate deposition maps with a higher spatial resolution. Indeed, combining EMEP maps on atmospheric depositions of cadmium, lead and nitrogen and the related maps of their concentrations in mosses by use of a Regression Kriging approach yielded deposition maps with a spatial resolution of 5 km by 5 km. Since spatial auto-correlation can make testing of statistical inference too liberal, the investigation at hand was to validate the 5 km by 5 km deposition maps by analysing if spatial auto-correlation of both EMEP deposition data and moss data impacted on the significance of their statistical correlation and, thus, the validity of the deposition maps. To this end, two hypotheses were tested: 1. The data on deposition and concentrations in mosses of heavy metals and nitrogen are not spatially auto-correlated significantly. 2. The correlations between the deposition and moss data lack statistical significance due to spatial autocorrelation. As already published, the regression models corroborated significant correlations between the concentrations of heavy metals and nitrogen in atmospheric depositions on the one hand and respective concentrations in mosses on the other hand. This investigation proved that atmospheric deposition and bioaccumulation data are spatially auto-correlated significantly in terms of Moran’s I values and, thus, hypothesis 1 could be rejected. Accordingly, the degrees of freedom were reduced. Nevertheless, the results of the calculations regarding the reduced degrees of freedom indicate that the statistical relations between atmospheric depositions and bioaccumulations remained statistically significant so that hypothesis 2 could be rejected, too. The positive auto-correlation in data on atmospheric deposition and bioaccumulation does not call for a revision of the 5 km by 5 km deposition maps published in recent papers. Therefore we can conclude that the European moss monitoring yields data that support the validation of modelling and mapping of atmospheric depositions of heavy metals and nitrogen at a high spatial resolution compared to the 50 km x 50 km EMEP maps.

Long-term monitoring of environmental change in German towns through the use of lichens as biological indicators: comparison between the surveys of 1970, 1980, 1985, 1995, 2005 and 2010 in Wetzlar and Giessen

Abstract: In the years 1970, 1980, 1985, 1995, 2005 and 2010, lichen mapping in the towns of Wetzlar and Giessen in Hesse was performed. The aim was to show the effects of immission load. Despite the application of modified test methods during the study period, the results can still be compared directly because they could be adapted to the requirements of the guidelines of the Association of German Engineers. Even the earlier study results could be interpreted partly within the scope of the guidelines. Parallel to the lichen mapping, comparative examinations of pH on tree bark were carried out. In both towns, the pH of the tree bark has been increasing continuously, presently almost reaching pre-industrial values. The increase was stronger in Wetzlar than in Giessen. In 1970, the lichen vegetation showed a complete depletion. Since then the number of species has risen significantly. This development happened faster and more intensely in Wetzlar. The comparison of the lichen vegetation between 1970 and 2010 also shows an increased existence of species that are favored by hypertrophic air contaminants. In the 2010 survey, some species considered as being promoted by global warming were found for the first time. The increase of the bark pH can be explained by the decreasing acid pollution, primarily SO2. This is also assumed to be the main cause for the increasing number of lichen species. An explanation for Wetzlar's advantage is that the acid pollutants had been neutralized by a local industrial emittent of lime dust. With the reduction of dust emissions in Wetzlar due to the installation of filters, the bark pH in both towns steadily converged in the reference period. An examination of pre-industrial lichen studies shows that in both towns the original state of lichen vegetation has not been restored yet.

The German ban on GM maize MON810: scientifically justified or unjustified?

Abstract: The ongoing controversies over genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in Europe remain intense. Assessing the risks associated with new technologies is crucial, and becomes particularly important for self-replicating GMOs used in open ecosystems. In general, scientific disagreement and debate is at the core of knowledge generation. However, in the GMO debate, it seems that pre-conceived conclusions can in some cases overshadow real data and factual results of investigations. In this article, we describe how the German ban on the cultivation of MON810 Bt-transgenic maize plant has been criticized for not having a sound scientific justification and provide arguments for why we disagree with this perspective. We do this by demonstrating in detail how arguments put forward by Agnes Ricroch and colleagues in an article from Transgenic Research are based on i) serious scientific flaws, such as omitting core results and misrepresenting others; ii) inconsistency in how laboratory studies that show negative effects of GM plant exposure should be followed up; and iii) a systematic selection of particular results and/or studies that match their own arguments. We conclude that Ricroch et al. misrepresent and selectively scrutinize certain data only. The effect of this double standard is that those only reading or referring to Ricroch et al. will be seriously misinformed about our study as well as in the discussion on the 2009 German ban of the MON810 GM maize. However, we do not claim that the ban was finally and irreversibly justified by the science referred to, including our own studies within the field. The German ban on MON810 was, and must be, a political decision, guided by valid scientific evidence.

Putative effects of Cry1Ab to larvae of Adalia bipunctata - reply to Hilbeck et al. (2012)

Abstract: In their recent study, Hilbeck et al. (2012) report that Cry1Ab causes lethal effects on larvae of the ladybird beetle Adalia bipunctata when fed directly to the predator. Such toxic effects were not previously observed in a direct feeding study conducted by us (Alvarez-Alfageme et al. 2011). Because Hilbeck et al. (2012) claim that our study design did not allow us to detect any adverse effects we provide arguments for the value and relevance of our study in this commentary. Furthermore we discuss two additional published studies that have not revealed any direct effects of Cry1Ab on larvae of A. bipunctata and are not mentioned by Hilbeck et al. (2012). One of the studies was conducted in our laboratory under more realistic exposure conditions (Alvarez-Alfageme et al. 2011). Feeding A. bipunctata larvae with spider mites reared on Bt maize did not reveal any adverse effects on lethal and sublethal parameters of the predator. This was despite the fact that the larvae had ingested high amounts of biologically-active Cry1Ab protein. Thus, we do not see verified evidence that A. bipunctata larvae are sensitive to Cry1Ab at realistic worst-case exposure concentrations. This, together with the fact that A. bipunctata will be little exposed to Cry1Ab under field conditions, allows us to conclude that the risk of Bt maize to this predator is negligible. Support for this comes from the results of many Bt maize field studies that have not revealed evidence for direct Cry1Ab-effects on non-Lepidoptera species.

Solid-phase microextraction for bioconcentration studies according to OECD TG 305

Abstract: An important aim of the European Community Regulation on chemicals and their safe use is the identification of (very) persistent, (very) bioaccumulative, and toxic substances. In other regulatory chemical safety assessments (pharmaceuticals, biocides, pesticides), the identification of such (very) persistent, (very) bioaccumulative, and toxic substances is of increasing importance. Solid-phase microextraction is especially capable of extracting total water concentrations as well as the freely dissolved fraction of analytes in the water phase, which is available for bioconcentration in fish. However, although already well established in environmental analyses to determine and quantify analytes mainly in aqueous matrices, solid-phase microextraction is still a rather unusual method in regulatory ecotoxicological research. Here, the potential benefits and drawbacks of solid-phase microextraction are discussed as an analytical routine approach for aquatic bioconcentration studies according to OECD TG 305, with a special focus on the testing of hydrophobic organic compounds characterized by log KOW > 5.

Overview of principles and implementations to deal with spatial issues in monitoring environmental effects of genetically modified organisms

Abstract: The approval of genetically modified organisms [GMO] for deliberate release and placing on the market requires GMO environmental risk assessment [ERA] and GMO environmental monitoring [EM]. Both GMO ERA and GMO EM are still under discussion. The goal of this article is, firstly, to analyse principles of GMO EM as published in the Association of German Engineers [VDI] Guideline 4330 Part 1, focusing on the characterisation of the receiving environment affected by GMO cultivation and the representativeness of GMO EM to assess large-scale implications of GMO cultivation. Secondly, the article introduces measures to meet these issues by the use of map data and statistics within a geographical information system [GIS]. Finally, three case studies exemplify the application of data and methods. To deal with spatial issues of GMO EM as outlined in the VDI Guideline 4330 Part 1, a GIS-based approach is presented. It relies on both spatial data collected from several sources which were derived from sample point data and geostatistical and multivariate statistical methods within a GIS environment. Data used for describing the receiving environment and for planning and evaluating monitoring schemes comprise information about land use, climate, phenology, soil coverage, species distribution and ecoregions. The case studies deal with (1) ecological land classification for characterisation of GMO-receiving environments and representative EM, (2) selection of representative sites for modelling GMO dispersal, and (3) delineation and mapping of segregation distances. Even a systematic and stepwise-structured risk assessment cannot cover all risk relevant questions, especially large-scale, long-term and combinatory effects which may not occur before the conventional application of the respective GMO. Hence, GMO EM is crucial to deal with unanticipated and undesirable effects. The article gives an overview of a GIS implementation and relevant geodata promoting GMO EM.

Water quality legislation in Palestine over the past century

Abstract: This paper deals with the water quality legislation that has been enforced in Palestine over the past century, from the Ottoman era through the British Mandate and Jordanian reign, to the Israeli occupation and current Palestinian autonomy. The study reveals that, due to the instability and the short interrupted spans of these regimes, apart from the Ottoman era, the successive ruling administrations were unable to draft water legislation in the interest of the Palestinian population, though the more stable Jordanian rule is an exception to this. Moreover, the study shows that the subject of the enacted legislations has depended on the circumstances that the population is subjected to or simply as reaction that deals instantly with a certain problem without taking into account any planning or future socioeconomic development. However, major concerns over the quality of accessible water gained momentum with an ever-increasing demand for limited water resources and the need for water treatment. Investments in legislation and its enforcement will lead to significant economic development and public health and environmental quality enhancement through equitable and reasonable management of shared water resources and community empowerment and awareness.

Influence of different flow conditions on the occurrence and behavior of potentially hazardous organic xenobiotics in the influent and effluent of a municipal sewage treatment plant in Germany: an effect-directed approach

Abstract: Flow conditions in the sewer systems are particularly important for the chemical and toxicological characteristics of raw and treated wastewater. Nevertheless, this topic has not been thoroughly investigated to date. In this study, composite wastewater samples were taken daily from the influent and effluent of a municipal sewage treatment plant. Polarity-based fractionation of the samples was carried out through sequential solid phase extractions. Biological testing of single and recombinant fractions was performed using bioluminescence inhibition assay according to DIN EN ISO 11348-2. Selected compounds (pharmaceuticals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) were also included in the chemical analysis by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. By analyzing different flow conditions, this study clarifies how these fractions contribute to the total toxicity of organic substances in wastewater. Additionally, it demonstrates the extent to which the potentially hazardous effects of the fractions can be reduced at the examined sewage treatment plant. Summarizing, medium to highly polar organic compounds were particularly relevant for the total toxicity of organic xenobiotics. For rising wastewater flow under wet weather conditions, we observed a significant decrease in the overall toxicity of the organic pollutants and specifically in the toxic effects of the moderately polar fraction 2. The results provide the starting point for an important risk assessment regarding the occurrence and behavior of potentially toxic xenobiotics by differentiated polarity in municipal wastewater for varying flow conditions.

Five years REACH – lessons learned and first experiences. I. an authorities' view

Abstract: Background Five years after entering into force, all the instruments of the REACH Regulation are active.

Akkumulation von Metallen und Stickstoff in Moosen in Nordrhein-Westfalen 1990 – 2005 (Accumulation of metals and nitrogen in mosses in North Rhine-Westfalia 1990–2005)

Abstract: Umweltbeobachtung ist zentraler Bestandteil internationaler Nachhaltigkeitsstrategien. Die langfristige Beobachtung der Anreicherung von Metallen in terrestrischen Okosystemen erfolgte Zwischen 1990 und 2005 alle funf Jahre europaweit in den europaischen Heavy Metals in Mosses Surveys. Seit 2005 wird auch die Stickstoffanreicherung bestimmt. Deutschland nahm an den Moosmonitoring-Kampagnen 1990 – 2005 teil. Der vorliegende Artikel ist Teil einer Serie, die Trends im Bundesgebiet und einzelnen Bundeslandern beleuchtet. Gegenstand dieser Untersuchung ist die Kartierung der zeitlichen Entwicklung der Metallanreicherung in Nordrhein-Westfalen seit 1990, die Stickstoffanreicherung 2005, die raumliche Varianz der Metall-Bioakkumulation in Abhangigkeit von Eigenschaften der Moosbeprobungsstellen und ihrer Umgebung sowie erstmals auch die Verknupfung der Stoffgehalte in den Moosen mit denen der flachendeckend modellierten Gesamtdeposition von Cadmium (Cd). In Nordrhein-Westfalen wurde die Bioakkumulation am haufigsten in Scleropodium purum bestimmt, gefolgt von Pleurozium schreberi und Hypnum cupressiforme. Die in diesen Moosen chemisch bestimmten Stoffe wurden mit den topografischen und okologischen Beschreibungen der bis zu 88 Beprobungsorte und mit quantitativen Angaben uber die Landnutzung in ihrer Umgebung in dem WebGIS MossMet zusammengefuhrt und ausgewertet: Aus den standort- und metallspezifischen Messdaten sowie den daraus geostatistisch berechneten Flachendaten uber die Metallakkumulation wurde ein zusammenfassender Multi-Metall-Index (MMI1990-2005) fur Arsen (As), Cd, Chrom (Cr), Kupfer (Cu), Eisen (Fe), Nickel (Ni), Blei (Pb), Titan (Ti), Vanadium (V) und Zink (Zn) berechnet und kartiert. Die Zusammenhange zwischen den Schwermetall-Akkumulationen, Standortcharakteristika und Landnutzung wurden korrelations- und kontingenzanalytisch sowie am Beispiel von Cu multivariat-statistisch mit Classification and Regression Trees (Cart) quantifiziert. Die Cd-Gehalte in den Moosen wurden mit denen der im European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) europaweit flachendeckend modellierten Gesamtdepositionsdaten fur Cd verknupft und korrelationsstatistisch ausgewertet. Wahrend von 1990 bis 2005 bis auf Zn alle Metallgehalte in den Moosen sanken, stiegen von 2000 bis 2005 die Konzentrationen von As, Cr, Cu, Ni, Sb und Zn an, bei Cr und Zn statistisch signifikant. Eine Zunahme des MMI1990-2005 von 2000 nach 2005 erwies sich als statistisch nicht signifikant. Die Stickstoffgehalte (N) betragen zwischen 1.08 und 2,29%. Sie sind positiv mit dem Agrarflachenanteil im Umkreis der Beprobungsstellen und der Bestandeshohe sowie negativ mit Waldflachenanteil, Entfernung zu Baumen, Hohe uber NN und Niederschlag korreliert (0.32 ≤ r Spearman ≥0.49, p <0.01). Die Korrelationen zwischen Metallgehalten in den Moosen und der Landnutzung im Umkreis der Beprobungsorte rangieren zwischen r S = 0.21 und r S = 0.54 (0.01