Showing papers in "International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship in 2016"

We love to hate them! Social media-based anti-brand communities in professional football

Abstract: Purpose Social media has promoted anti-brand communities, which build around the shared aversion to a specific brand. The purpose of this paper is to investigate social media-based anti-brand communities and their effects on the sports team brand in question. Design/methodology/approach The authors conducted a netnographic study of Facebook-based anti-brand communities that oppose a professional football team. Findings The netnographic study reveals characteristics and drivers of Facebook-based anti-brand communities that oppose a professional football team. The research further identifies co-destructive behaviours of anti-brand community members that harm the sports team brand and even its sponsors. However, the findings also reveal that anti-brand communities may play a positive role in sport, as they strengthen the relationship between fans of the opposed brand and this brand and foster rivalry among football fans. Practical implications This research establishes the relevance of social media-based anti-brand communities for sports brands. Recommendations are made for team sport brands with regards to how to deal with the phenomenon of anti-brand communities. Originality/value While the previous research on anti-brand activism focused on either offline movements or movements using traditional websites, this research is the first to investigate the pivotal role of social networking sites for anti-brand activism. The paper further uncovers unique motivational, attitudinal, and behavioral patterns of fans that meet in communities opposing not only the rival team, but also the brand associated with the team. Findings show ways to better understand and deal with such anti-brand communities in sports.

Online and mobile marketing strategies as drivers of brand love in sports teams: Findings from Real Madrid

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to analyze the role of online and mobile marketing as drivers of brand love. Design/methodology/approach – Data were collected through an online survey during early 2013. A total of 241 valid answered questionnaires were collected and the constructs were tested for unidimensionality by using principal components analysis. Findings – This work confirms that in spite of the fact that players are relevant assets and investments, sports managers need to concentrate their efforts on managing the team’s brand, as this is one of the company’s most important assets. Moreover, the present paper shows that developing an interactive website is not enough to get brand love. In particular, findings reveal that traditional websites are no longer motivating customers to return to the site. As a result, sports managers need to use interactive marketing mediums to connect with consumers in real time. In addition, by integrating different elements of social media such as blogs, YouTub...

Impact of core product quality on sport fans’ emotions and behavioral intentions

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationships among the core product quality (team characteristics and player performance), emotion (anxiety, anger, dejection, happiness, and excitement), and the fans behavioral intentions. Design/methodology/approach – Data were gathered on the team characteristics and player performance, emotions of anxiety, anger, dejection, happiness, and excitement using a survey from subjects comprised of 233 spectators attending Iranian Premier League soccer matches. Findings – The results showed that both the core product quality dimensions of the team characteristics and player performance are related significantly to the negative emotion of anxiety and both positive emotions of excitement and happiness. Moreover, the positive emotions of excitement and happiness were positively related to the fan attendance, while the negative emotions of anxiety and dejection were negatively and significantly related to the fans behavioral intentions. The practical implica...

Social impact of major sports events perceived by host community

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the social impact of major sports events perceived by host city residents using Shanghai as an example. Design/methodology/approach – Exploratory factor analysis based on 450 valid questionnaires. Findings – Research revealed six impact factors including four positive ones: “image and status,” “international exchange and cooperation,” “economic and tourism development,” and “infrastructure development.” In addition, two negative ones are also identified as “inconvenience of life” and “environment pollution and security concern.” Taken as a whole, the local residents in Shanghai have a relative positive perception of the impact of major sports events. Four out of six impact factors were significantly predictive of the attitude toward future bidding of major sports events. Originality/value – The existing literature mainly examined social impact of specific events through case study, and little is known about the overall perception of major sports events in ...

Consumer-brand relationships in sports products and repurchase intention

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the key determinants of brand commitment in sports products based on the investment model and seeks to predict consumers’ repurchase intention. Design/methodology/approach – Data from a survey questionnaire (n = 247) were analysed primarily using structural equation modelling techniques. Findings – The results support the investment model’s hypothesis that brand commitment is weakened by the quality of alternative options but strengthened by consumers’ satisfaction with and investment in the brand. Moreover, brand commitment had a positive influence on consumers’ repurchase intention. Originality/value – Using the investment model of commitment processes, the study provides useful information on consumer-brand relationships and repurchase intention.

What makes an effective CSR program? An analysis of the constructs of a cause-related participant sport sponsorship event

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explain the benefits of charitable sport events and examines how consumer involvement in the cause, attitude toward the event, and event-sponsor fit influence corporate image (CI) and corresponding purchase intention (PI). Design/methodology/approach – The conceptual model developed in this research consolidates various constructs related to sponsors and events into a single comprehensive framework, thus offering an integrated view of the factors that determine consumers’ perceptions of a sponsorship and their attitudes toward a sponsor. Data were collected from participants in the Pink Ribbon Love Marathons (PRLM) held in Seoul, South Korea. A total of 650 female subjects (mean age=41.2, SD=12.5) participated in this investigation. Findings – The findings indicate that CI plays a significant role as a partial mediator within a reciprocal relationship between participants’ event perception and patronage intention. Sponsoring a well-targeted event might have a posi...

A comparative analysis of cultural value orientations for understanding sport fan motivations

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between cultural value orientations and sport fan motivations. Design/methodology/approach – Data were collected from American and Korean college students. Three separate multivariate analysis of covariance revealed sport fan motivations differ across nationality and cultural value orientation. Findings – The current study provided empirical support for the assumption that individualism-collectivism influences sport fan motivations and geographically different sport consumers. Also, the outcomes were consistent with the previous literature which found sport fan motivations differ across nationality (the USA and South Korea). Originality/value – In combination with prior research, the findings of this study offer suggestions for how marketers could differentiate their marketing strategies for culturally diverse sport consumers.

Spectator perception of service quality attributes associated with Shanghai Formula One

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine spectator perceptions of service quality at the Formula One (F-1) event in Shanghai by means of Martilla and James’ Importance and Performance Analysis (IPA). Design/methodology/approach – The items were plotted on the four IPA dimensions, including: Concentrate Here; Keep Up the Good Work; Lower Priority; and Possible Overkill. Findings – The results indicated that staff courtesy seems to be the strength of the event. However, concession quality, food prices, and arena accessibility, including restrooms at the Shanghai F-1 event, did not meet spectators’ expectations. In addition, the results suggested that in any spectator sporting event, food consumption helps to create a positive experience. Therefore, IPA revealed that service quality related to concessions, food pricing, and arena accessibility at the Shanghai F-1 are in need of immediate improvement, whereas staff courtesy and race visuals were satisfactory. Originality/value – The findings will hel...

The impacts of brand asset of domestic screen golf playing systems upon brand trust and brand loyalty

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper was to provide Korean screen golf systems suppliers experiencing severe competition in an oversaturated market with effective brand marketing strategies by examining the interrelationships among brand assets, brand trust, and brand loyalty. Design/methodology/approach This study used the convenient sampling method of non-probability and distributed questionnaires to 1,200 subjects over 20 years of age from ten screen golf playing facilities in Korea. Findings The following results were obtained: first, the subfactors of brand assets were identified to have significant influence upon brand trust in the following order: perceived quality, brand image, and brand awareness. Second, brand trust was identified to have a significant influence on brand loyalty. Lastly, the subfactors of brand assets were identified to have significant influence on brand loyalty in the following order: brand image, brand awareness, and perceived quality. Originality/value This paper provides useful information for developing an effective brand strategy in an oversaturated situation.

Doping scandals in professional cycling: impact on primary team sponsor’s stock return

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of doping scandals (n=25) in professional cycling Grand Tour events on the primary team sponsor’s daily stock return. Design/methodology/approach – Event study methodology. Findings – Overall it was found that during the time period and events under examination in this study doping scandals had no significant impact on the primary team sponsor’s stock returns. Originality/value – There is limited research to explain the economic impact of widespread doping in cycling and its commercial shareholders. This study addresses this gap by examining the relationship between doping scandals in professional cycling and the daily stock return of the involved team’s primary sponsor.

Roles of sport and cause involvement in determining employees’ beliefs about cause-related sport sponsorship

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the roles of employees’ involvement with the sponsored sport and cause in determining their beliefs about cause-related sport sponsorship. Design/methodology/approach – Respondents completed a survey that included the measures of sport involvement, cause involvement, and sponsorship beliefs adapted from previous studies. The final sample included 131 attendees who identified themselves as employees of sponsors of a cause-related sport event in a web-based post-event survey. A multiple regression analysis was performed to test hypotheses. Findings – Despite the prevailing logic that companies can enhance the perception of goodwill by sponsoring sport that is important to their employees, employees’ sport involvement was found to have no effect on their sponsorship beliefs. In contrast, cause involvement alone explained a large amount of the variance in those beliefs. Originality/value – The findings contribute to the literature by indicating that how em...

The effects of prior affect and sensory stimuli on motorsport spectators’ in-the-moment experiences

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to provide meaningful information to sport organizations that have just recently started hosting sporting events in a new market and want to build long-term relationships with that market’s consumers. Design/methodology/approach Using self-administered questionnaires, the study surveys 463 spectators who attended the 2012 Formula One Korean Grand Prix. Findings Prior affect and existing sensory cues are crucial for spectators’ consumption behavior. Spectators’ prior event attendance plays a significant role on perceiving sensory stimuli as well as on consequent outcomes. This study also finds arousal significantly affected by seeing and hearing and prior affect. Arousal mediates the effects of these sensory stimuli and prior affect on satisfaction and revisit intention. Originality/value This study expands the knowledge on spectators’ experience at live sporting events. In addition, more dimensions of the mechanisms that are at work between cognitive elements and sensory stimuli are added to the existing knowledge of sport spectators’ behavior.

Do sport tourists’ perceived risks affect their involvement and intention to (re)visit? An empirical study for risk-reduction strategies

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate what factors have a significant effect on equestrians’ participation in equestrian tourism. Design/methodology/approach – The methodology was quantitative research data analysis. Survey questionnaires (perceived risk, involvement, and intention to (re)visit questions) were developed based on pertinent previous studies. A main study was conducted in West Texas in the USA with college students. Findings – This study found that the perceived risk factors significantly affected involvement factors and, in turn, affected intention to (re)visit in equestrian tourism. Originality/value – Although equestrian tourism has many positive effects on tourists such as health benefits as well as local economies, equestrian tourism in the USA is considered one of the least favorite leisure sports compared to other sports activities. Consequentially, there are few studies related to equestrian tourists, this paper adds to a currently niche area of study.

An examination of Oliver’s product loyalty framework

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to test Oliver’s two-dimension (fortitude and community/social support) product loyalty framework. Design/methodology/approach – Oliver categorized each of the two dimensions into high and low, creating a two-by-two framework: low fortitude and low-community/social support (Product Superiority group); low fortitude and high-community/social support (Village Envelopment group); high fortitude and low-community/social support (Determined Self-isolation group); high fortitude and high-community/social support (Immersed Self-identity group). The paper uses two samples. The sample from Study 1 was season ticket holders (n=199) of a West Coast (USA) Major League Baseball team. Results indicated preliminary support for Oliver’s four groups and good psychometric properties of the fan community scale and the individual fortitude scale (IFS). Study 2 focussed on attendees (n=458) at two East Coast (USA) Major League Baseball venues. Findings – The multivariate GLM indicated si...

Popular music in Super Bowl commercials 2005-2014

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to quantify and qualify the commercials in the Super Bowl. Design/methodology/approach This study is a content analysis of the placement of popular music in Super Bowl advertisements over a ten-year period (2005-2014). Findings More than a quarter of the commercials analyzed contained popular music. Although the use of popular music in commercials vacillated from year to year, popular music was most often observed in the product category of beverages; the music treatment most often used was original vocals; and song lyrics were most often relevant to the narrative of the commercial, rather than the brand. Originality/value This study extends the growing body of Super Bowl advertising research to popular music in commercials and provides a benchmark for all future research in this area.

Going green in baseball – a case study of the SK Wyverns

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the marketing journey of a professional baseball team in South Korea (the SK Wyverns), from the conception of a new “green” campaign to the resulting environmental, social and economic gains of the local community and of Korean baseball in general. Design/methodology/approach The investigator interviewed 12 constituents of the SK’s green marketing campaign, participated as an observer at seven separate field trips to the SK stadium and meetings, and collected and analyzed corporate documentation and physical artifacts. The role of the researcher as an advisor to the Wyvern’s green marketing initiative from the onset provided rare access to these multiple and different sources of evidence, which helped to establish the trustworthiness of the results (Yin, 2003). Findings By taking unconventional steps to find new funding opportunities, the team managed to achieve a triple benefit-of environmental, social and economic gains from green marketing. In the big picture, one will recognize that the SK Wyverns’ story is less about the opportune timing of its funding strategy, and more about its capacity for innovative thinking to address the big issue of meeting up-front costs. Originality/value The significance of the SK Wyverns’ green marketing program is that it shows how even a team in a non-major baseball market like South Korea can accept a big challenge and deliver the desired results by solving the cost issue in a proactive, creative way. The hope is that other sport franchises around Asia, in other regions faced with growing environmental concerns, may regard this case as a benchmark and find inspiration for their own creative solutions in going green.

Female spectators as customers at National Football League games

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate female National Football League (NFL) spectators’ preferences and feedback in regard to various customer service components of the NFL game day experience. The primary components with respect to female spectators’ choices, preferences, and feedback are as follows: apparel and other merchandise; food and beverage; restrooms and facility cleanliness; tailgating and parking; participants’ decision to attend an NFL game; and participants’ perceptions of the NFL. A core objective was to learn more about the female decision-making process and overall experience at NFL games. Design/methodology/approach – All data were collected during the 2012-2013 NFL regular season. Four different data collections were conducted at two NFL stadiums to investigate the game day experiences of women at NFL games. Previous research was used as a basis for creating survey questions about the female game day experience. In this study, an open-ended questionnaire contained both q...

Information processing of audiences exposed to public service advertising messages for Special Olympics

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the cognitive processes that the study subjects experienced when exposed to different types of public service advertisements about Special Olympics. Design/methodology/approach – A total of 529 cognitive responses from 141 college students were analyzed using the content analysis method. Findings – The results of the frequency count of cognitive responses indicated that low-empathy (LE) subjects engaged in extensive cognitive efforts to process the information as much as high-empathy (HE) subjects. Additionally, the content analysis of the qualitative data showed that the two most frequently cited categories of positive thoughts for HE subjects were good cause/importance of Special Olympics and positive feeling related to volunteering for Special Olympics. For LE subjects, the most frequently identified category in positive thoughts was altruist/moral responsibility, followed by volunteer intention and positive feeling related to volunteering for Special O...

Brand management in top-tier college athletics: examining and explaining mark-usage policies

Abstract: Purpose – The practice of an interscholastic athletic department reproducing the logo of a collegiate team for its own use is becoming increasingly visible. In response to this growth, many collegiate licensing departments have begun actively enforcing zero-tolerance policies that prohibit third parties from using their respective colleges’ trademarks. Conversely, other institutions have exercised discretion by allowing high school programs to use their athletic departments’ logos only after receiving assurances from the high school that it will adhere to strict usage guidelines. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – The paper provides a thorough discussion on the concept of brand dilution and its application to sport. More specifically the study gives an account of the strategies employed by trademark specialists to protect (and in some cases, enhance) the equity of their brands. To identify these strategies, a qualitative questionnaire was employed, which was completed by...

Using cultural factors to explore sport consumption behaviors of ethnic minority groups: The case of Asians in the United States

Abstract: Purpose – Despite the remarkable economic power and rapid growth of the Asian population in the USA, relatively little attention has been paid to this group in the sport management literature compared to African-Americans and Hispanics. In addition, sport management scholars have paid limited attention to two important cultural factors: ethnic identity and acculturation. The paper aims to discuss this issue. Design/methodology/approach – This study attempted to examine a comprehensive sport consumption model for Asians by testing theoretical relationships between these two cultural factors (ethnic identity and acculturation), fan identification, and sport consumption behavior. Findings – The structural equation modeling results indicated that ethnic identity indirectly affected consumption of sport products reflecting attributes of a native country, e.g. ethnic player popular sports in a native country through identification with the sport products. In contrast acculturation indirectly affected consumptio...