Showing papers in "Management Information Systems Quarterly in 1993"

CASE tools as organizational change: investigating incremental and radical changes in systems development

Abstract: This paper presents the findings of an empirical study into two organizations' experiences with the adoption and use of CASE tools over time. Using a grounded theory research approach, the study characterizes the organizations' experiences in terms of processes of incremental or radical organizational change. These findings are used to develop a theoretical framework for conceptualizing the organizational issues around the adoption and use of these tools-issues that have been largely missing from contemporary discussions of CASE tools. The paper thus has important implications for research and practice. Specifically, the framework and findings suggest that in order to account for the experiences and outcomes associated with CASE tools, researchers should consider the social context of systems development, the intentions and actions of key players, and the implementation process followed by the organization. Similarly, the paper suggests that practitioners will be better able to manage their organizations' experiences with CASE tools if they understand that such implementations involve a process of organizational change over time and not merely the installation of a new technology.

Re-examining perceived ease of use and usefulness

Abstract: Recently, Adams, et al. (1992) presented the results of two studies designed to replicate previous work by Fred Davis (1989) regarding perceived usefulness, ease of use, and their influence on the usage of information technology. Specifically, these authors sought to: (1) evaluate the psychometric properties of the ease of use and usefulness scales, and (2) empirically examine the relationship between the constructs (or traits) of usefulness, ease of use, and reported levels of usage.

Small-firm computing: motivators and inhibitors

Abstract: This paper examines information system evolution in small firms. It focuses on applications growth, and uses the experiences of six small manufacturing firms to identify motivators and inhibitors of growth. Many factors were identified. Motivators of growth included improved enthusiasm for the technology. Inadequate resources and limited education about information systems were among the factors that inhibited application growth.

Experiences in strategic information systems planning

Abstract: Strategic information systems planning (SISP) remains a top concern of many organizations. Accordingly, researchers have investigated SISP practice and proposed both formal methods and principles of good practice. SISP cannot be understood by considering formal methods alone. The processes of planning and the implementation of plans are equally important. However, there have been very few field investigations of these phenomena. This study examines SISP experience in 27 companies and, unusually, relies on interviews not only with IS managers but also with general managers and line managers. By adopting this broader perspective, the investigation reveals companies were using five different SISP approaches: Business-Led, Method-Driven, Administrative, Technological, and Organizational. Each approach has different characteristics and, therefore, a different likelihood of success. The results show that the Organizational Approach appears to be most effective. The taxonomy of the five approaches potentially provides a diagnostic tool for analyzing and evaluating an organization's experience with SISP.

How did they get my name?: an exploratory investigation of consumer attitudes toward secondary information use

Abstract: Strategic uses of information technology based on personal information may raise privacy concerns among consumers if these applications do not reflect a common set of values. This study addresses what differentiates consumers who object to certain uses of personal information from those who do not object. Data collected by questionnaire from young consumers are used to identify a research approach for investigating attitudes toward the secondary use of personal information for direct marketing. Secondary information use occurs when personal information collected for one purpose is subsequently used for a different purpose. While secondary information use is both widespread and legal, it may be viewed as an invasion of privacy when it occurs without the knowledge or consent of the consumer. The setting for the study is the use of point-of-sale data from a supermarket frequent shopper program to generate direct mail solicitations. Control emerges as a clear theme in differentiating individuals with positive overall attitudes toward secondary information use from those with negative attitudes. Study participants with positive attitudes are less concerned about privacy (measured as control over personal information), perceive shopping by mail as beneficial, and have coping strategies for dealing with unwanted mail. The results also suggest that theory related to categorization of strategic issues as positive-negative with outcomes that are controllable/uncontrollable provides a basis for understanding differences in the ways individuals perceive practices involving personal information. Future research should focus on the specific characteristics of secondary use practices, including the sensitivity of the information, its source, its perceived relevance to the original transaction, and whether disclosure reflects informed consent or results in a potentially harmful outcome to the individual

On the Test-Retest Reliability of Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Ease of Use Scales

Abstract: systems is increasingly important (Jarvenpaa, et al., 1985; Straub, 1989). An underlying tenet of IS success is the decision maker's willingness to adopt and utilize these systems. Measures that predict and explain use are important in determining what causes people to accept or reject information technology. This note reports on the test-retest reliability of the perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use scales. Davis (1989) developed and validated two scales for assessing user acceptance of information technology-perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. Adams, et al. (1992) replicated the work of Davis (1989) to demonstrate the validity and reliability of these scales. While replicating the study, Adams, et al. (1992) also extended it to different settings and found both scales to have the same validity and reliability characteristics as the Davis (1989) study. Using two different samples, they demonstrated the internal consistency and replication reliability of the two scales.

The is expectation gap: industry expectations versus academic preparation

Abstract: Recent changes in information systems technologies, applications, and personnel require us to reconsider the skills for tomorrow's IS professionals. This study uses data from four groups-IS managers, end-user managers, IS consultants, and IS professors-to identify the key skills and knowledge that will be required of future IS professionals. These requirements were then compared with current IS academic programs. The results reveal that despite a shared vision of the future IS professional, there is an "expectation gap" between industry needs and academic preparation. Industry and universities must work together to close this gap. Universities need to place more emphasis on the integration of technologies, applications, data, and business functions and less on traditional and formal system development. Firms need to send consistent messages to universities about their expectations while recognizing that the mission of university business programs is career education, not job training.

The effects of information system user expectations on their performance and perceptions

Abstract: The consequences of information system failure become more acute as organizations continue to invest in information technology and application development Being able to better predict IS failure before implementation of a system could facilitate changes in the information system that can lead to implementation success The realism of user expectations has been suggested as one possible means of assessing the eventual success or failure of an IS Cognitive dissonance theory was used to hypothesize the behavior and attitudes of end users having certain expectations of a system This experiment investigates the association between unrealistic expectations with both users' perceptions (ie, user satisfaction) and their performance with the IS (ie, decision performance) A longitudinal experiment was performed in which the expectations of the subjects were manipulated to be unrealistically high, realistically moderate, or unrealistically low The results suggest an association between realism of users' expectations and their perceptions but not their actual performance Future research should be directed toward the development of an instrument to measure user expectations, as well as toward understanding the causes of unrealistic user expectations

Impact of communication medium and computer support on group perceptions and performance: a comparison of face-to-face and dispersed meetings*

Abstract: Economic, social, and political institutions worldwide are relying increasingly on communication technology to perform a variety of functions: holding electronic town meetings where hundreds of people in numerous cities participate simultaneously; forging strategic links with business partners, thereby forming "virtual corporations" that can be instantly disbanded; redefining the conventional notion of a college campus by offering classes via interactive media to non-traditional students; and enabling consumers with personal digital assistants to remain connected with their children and families at all times In this environment, where geographic and temporal boundaries are shrinking rapidly, electronic meeting systems (EMS) are playing an important role This study examines the impact of teams on using EMS in dispersed and face-to-face settings The results suggest that EMS can be effective in augmenting traditional audio-conferencing by strengthening the medium and allowing additional communication use to be exchanged among participants They also indicate that EMS can improve decision-making performance, given proper task-technology fit and adequate facilitation As businesses expand globally, such systems will provide instant communication capabilities and help coordinate dispersed decision-making activities

Training end users: an experimental investigation of the roles of the computer interface and training methods

Abstract: End-user computing has become an area of major importance to organizations over the past several years. As non-professional computer users come to rely on computer systems to perform more and more of their basic tasks, MIS managers need to ensure that those individuals learn to use software packages effectively. Two common, and often complementary, approaches for achieving this goal have been to develop in-house training programs and to utilize computer systems that are "user friendly." Using Assimilation Theory a basis for this study, we investigate the impacts of two types of training methods and two computer interfaces on users' learning performance and attitudes toward a computer system. A laboratory experiment was conducted to compare a commonly used direct manipulation interface-DMI (the Apple Macintosh)-with a commonly used command-based interface-Disk Operating System (DOS). Each interface was presented to subjects by using either an exploration training approach or an instruction-based training approach. Results of the study indicate that individuals using the DMI performed substantially better than those using the command-based interface. However, there was no difference between these two groups in terms of perceived ease of system use. Also, in contrast to previous studies, there were no differences in outcomes related to the two types of training methods. Assimilation Theory is used to explain these results, and recommendations are made for future research.

A Keyword Classification Scheme for IS Research Literature: An Update

Abstract: In June 1988 MIS Quarterly published a classification scheme of IS keywords. The development of this scheme was intended to provide a description of the discipline, introduce a common language, and enable research of the field's development. The scheme has been recently updated in order to incorporate the new research topics and methods, hence better reflecting the evolution of the IS discipline.

Metaphors and methodologies: living beyond the systems machine

Abstract: Metaphors are the cognitive lenses we use to make sense of all situations. Intimately interconnected with the way we think, metaphors are fundamental in shaping reality. Building on work about metaphors in organizational life, this paper examines the language of information systems users in 16 different organizations. The results confirm the existence of six main metaphors (journey, war, game, organism, society, and machine) and adds three metaphors that also emerged from the language of IS users (family, zoo, and jungle). Dramatistic analysis was used to reveal that seven of these principal metaphors are found in commonly used systems development methodologies. For example, the systems development life cycle draws upon the "game" metaphor, and structured methodologies and CASE tools are akin to the "machine" metaphor. Analysts who are aware of the existence of these metaphors (both in the user organization and within the methodologies themselves) will begin to see the systems development process in an entirely different light. Caution must be undertaken, however, when using this approach. First, analysts should lead the systems development process by selecting a methodology to match user metaphors, not the other way around. Second, analysts must see, rather than suppress, the paradoxical richness of metaphors. Third, analysts should not limit the number of metaphors because it limits the usefulness of this approach. Fourth, analysts should be adequately trained in a variety of systems development methodologies. Finally, analysts should use metaphorical analysis in conjunction with other approaches. Using the recommendations and findings for guidance, analysts can begin to develop the power of metaphorical analysis to better understand and communicate with users during the development process.

Un)Structured creativity in information systems organizations

Abstract: The subject of creativity is a neglected area in the literature of the information systems field. Yet, according to a Delphi survey of chief information officers, the field needs to be developing more creative and innovative solutions to its problems. Organizations must first be sure that certain preconditions and organizational components be in place to help individuals and teams become more creative. They can then use numerous creativity improvements techniques that have proved successful in other disciplines. In this article, six case studies show how analytical techniques (progressive abstraction, interrogations, and force field analysis) and intuitive techniques (associations/images, wishful thinking, and analogy/metaphor) have been used in several industries to solve a variety of IS-related problems and/or opportunities. Al told, some 20 creativity techniques provide especially appropriate for the IS field. Once managers understand when and where to use creativity techniques, they can move forward with implementing formal creativity improvement programs in their organizations.

Determining information requirements for an EIS

Abstract: Executive information systems (EISs) are challenging applications to develop, and many organizations are unsuccessful in their efforts. A major problem is determining the information requirements for the system. A multi-stage study was conducted to explore (1) methods used to determine the information requirements for the initial and ongoing version of an EIS; (2) how frequently the methods are used; (3) how useful the methods are; and (4) in what situations the methods are useful or not useful. Telephone interviews identified 16 methods used to determine information requirements and provided insights into what makes the methods useful or not useful. Survey questionnaires revealed how frequently the methods are used and how useful they are. The use of the 16 methods for the initial and ongoing versions of an EIS are discussed as are suggestions for further research.

Distributed group support systems

Abstract: Distributed group support systems are likely to be widely used in the future as a means for dispersed groups of people to work together through computer networks. They combine characteristics of computer-mediated communication systems with the specialized tools and processes developed in the context of group decision support systems, to provide communications, a group memory, and tools and structures to coordinate the group process and analyze data. These tools and structures can take a wide variety of forms in order to best support computer-mediated interaction for different types of tasks and groups. This article summarizes five case studies of different distributed group support systems developed by the authors and their colleagues over the last decade to support different types of tasks and to accommodate fairly large numbers of participants (tens to hundreds). The case studies are placed within conceptual frameworks that aid in classifying and comparing such systems. The results of the case studies demonstrate that design requirements and the associated research issues for group support systems an be very different in the distributed environment compared to the decision room approach.

Exploring individual user satisfaction within user-led development

Abstract: User-led development is gaining popularity with organizations wishing to increase user involvement and control. Typically in this approach a small group of users is given the responsibility for managing the project and representing the user community in determining requirements, testing, training, and system implementation. This paper explores the end user's perception of the quality of his or her representation and satisfaction with the application system within an organization employing user-led development. The end-user communities for two systems developed in a large Australian government corporation were surveyed. The results indicate that the user perception of representation is the most significant influence on user satisfaction-the correlation scores for the two systems studied were in excess of 0.6. Also of importance is the user's perception of management support. Both systems recorded a low average score for user representativeness (2.5 and 2.7), which is attributed in part to the large number and geographic spread of the users and to the approach adopted by the user representatives in the user-led development team.

The usefulness of computer-based information to public managers

Abstract: This study uses data from 260 public managers to assess two broad images of the potential of information technology and computer-based information (CBI) to serve public managers: the "knowledge executive" and the "CBI consumer." The data were collected as part of a longitudinal study of computer user in more than 40 U.S. cities conducted in 1976 and again in 1988. The results show that computer-based information is important for most managers, and many report they are extremely dependent upon it. Also, the managers currently find the information more valuable for control of financial resources than for management of operations. Furthermore, among four sets of factors that might account for differences in the usefulness of computer-based information to managers, quality and accessibility of the information and the manager's style of use are particularly important. Finally, managers who are most satisfied with the usefulness of computer-based information are those who use support staff to mediate their computer-based information environment, rather than those who use the computer to access information directly. Such indirect use of computing might be the most appropriate mode for many contemporary managers. Therefore, the focus of design efforts for information systems for managers should be as much on these intermediaries as on the executives themselves.

The impact of information technology on middle managers

Abstract: This article reviews studies that examine the impact of information technology (IT) on the number of middle managers in organizations. Contradictory evidence is found to suggest, paradoxically, that IT both increases and decreases the number of middle managers. This "empirical paradox" is resolved by looking at the effects of IT on middle managers as contingent upon the degree of centralization of computing decisions, and of organizational decisions more broadly. When both computing decisions and organizational decisions are centralized, top managers tend to use IT to reduce the number of middle managers. When these decisions are decentralized, middle managers use IT to increase their numbers. A recent case study provides preliminary support for this perspective by showing an interesting case of reduction in middle managers.

Exploring modes of facilitative support for GDSS technology

Abstract: The use of group decision support systems (GDSS) is rapidly growing. One key factor in the effectiveness of these systems may be the manner in which users are supported in their use of this technology. This paper explores two types of GDSS facilitative support: chauffeur-riven and facilitator-driven. In the former case, a person is used to reduce the mystique of the GDSS technology for users. In the latter case, a person assists the group with its group process in addition to reducing the mystique of the technology. The work unfolds a research story in which the original thinking of the research tem to the effect that facilitator-driven GDSS facilitative support is superior is proven incorrect. The results of a pilot study caused the research team to reverse its thinking and hypothesize that, given the nature of the facilitation used and the task faced by the group, chauffeur-driven facilitation would have an advantage. The results of the experiment reported in this paper support this hypothesis. Arguments are presented to the effect that, to be effective in a judgment task environment, facilitation must be open and adaptive rather than restrictive.

Assessing the value of conoco's EIS

Abstract: Corporate-wide efforts to eliminate unnecessary expenses prompted Conoco's decision to assess the benefits and costs of its executive information system (EIS). Because there was no accepted methodology for doing this, one was developed and successfully used. First, system usage statistics were collected in order to identify which applications were being used in each department, who was using them, and how often. Key users were then interviewed to further support the assessment of the tangible and intangible benefits derived from the EIS. The benefits included improved productivity, improved decision making, information distribution cost savings, services replacement cost savings, and software replacement cost savings. The costs included the direct costs of maintaining the EIS and the indirect costs absorbed by the operating groups who provide personnel to perform EIS-related tasks. Benefits were found to exceed the system's costs; low value applications that should be eliminated were identified, as were applications that needed to be added or enhanced. A number of lessons were learned that are generalizable to other organizations. The successful assessment of the benefits of Conoco's EIS raises the hopes that other types of applications with "soft" benefits might be better quantified.

User-database interface: the effect of abstraction levels on query performance*

Abstract: A common classification of data models is based on their abstraction levels: physical, logical and conceptual. The user-database interaction can be similarly classified. For the conceptual-level interaction, the user and the database exchange information on the user's world, e.g., information of entities, relationships, and attributes. For the logical-level interaction, the user and the database communicate based on concepts in the database system, e.g., relations and join operations. We expect users to be familiar with concepts in their world but not the concepts in the database system. This is especially so for infrequent or naive database users. The conceptual level should therefore be easier because it is semantically closer to the user. This deduction was tested in an experiment using the entity-relationship (ER) model for the conceptual-level model and the relational model for the logical-level model. The results were affirmative. The users at the conceptual level had 38 percent higher accuracy and 16 percent higher confidence than users at the logical level. The conceptual-level users took 65 percent less time than the logical-level users, and it took 33 percent less time to train them. The differences were statistically significant with p < 0.003. The huge differences indicate that noticeable improvements can be made by switching from the relational model to the ER model. The experiment also provided valuable data on errors commonly made by users.

Cognitive feedback in GDSS: improving control and convergence

Abstract: Cognitive feedback in group decision making is information that provides decision makers with a better understanding of their own decision processes and that of the other group members. It appears to be an effective aid in group decision making. Although it has been suggested as a potential feature of group decision support systems (GDSS), little research has examined its use and impact. This article investigates the effect of computer generated cognitive feedback in computer-supported group decision processes. It views group decision making as a combination of individual and collective activity. The article tests whether cognitive feedback can enhance control over the individual and collective decision making processes and can facilitate the process of convergence among group members. In a laboratory experiment with groups of three decision makers, 15 groups received online cognitive feedback and 15 groups did not. Users receiving cognitive feedback maintained a higher level of control over the decision-making process as their decision strategies converged. This research indicates that (1) developers should include cognitive feedback as an integral part of the GDSS at ever level, and (2) they should design the human-computer interaction so there is an intuitive and effective transaction across the components of feedback at all levels. Researchers should extend the concepts explored here to other models of conflict that deal with ill-structured decisions, as well as study the impact of cognitive feedback over time. Finally, researchers trying to enhance the capabilities of GDSS should continue examining how to take advantage of the differences between individual, interpersonal, and collective decision making.

Knowledge-based approaches to database design

Abstract: Database design is often described as an intuitive, even artistic, process. Many researchers, however, are currently working on applying techniques from artificial intelligence to provide effective automated assistance for this task. This article presents a summary of the current state of the art for the benefit of future researchers and users of this technology. Thirteen examples of knowledge-based tools for database design are briefly described and then compared in terms of the source, content, and structure of their knowledge bases; the amount of support they provide to the human designer; the data models and phases of the design process they support; and the capabilities they expect of their users. The finding show that there has apparently been very little empirical verification of the effectiveness of these systems. In addition, most rely exclusively on knowledge provided by the developers themselves and have little ability to expand their knowledge based on experience. Although such systems ideally would be used by application specialists rather than database professionals, most of these systems expect the user to have some knowledge of database technology.

Learning styles and end-user training: an unwarranted leap of faith

Abstract: In a recent article in MIS Quarterly, Bostrom, et al. (1990) report that, "A consistent pattern of findings emerges that indicates that learning modes is an important predictor of learning performance, both by itself and in interaction with training methods. The findings suggest that in the design of training, it is essential to match training methods to individual difference variables" (p. 101). We do not agree that Bostrom, et al.'s results represent a consistent pattern of findings. Moreover, the results of this research should be discounted because the measures of learning styles were derived from an instrument with very poor psychometric properties. Thus, the conclusion that learning styles are important factors in end-user training (EUT) is unsupported at the present time.

Tailoring database training for end users

Abstract: Lack of familiarity with database design methods could prevent many end users from effectively implementing their database management system packages. An inexpensive solution would be for end users to learn required database design skills from software tutors tailored to their needs. This research describes two tutors developed to teach these skills to end users. The tutors were based on a modified Entity-Relationship database design method. They improved an end user's natural learning process by incorporating design principles and facilitators. Empirical comparison of the tutors tested the teaching effectiveness of the facilitators. The results lead to recommendations for closing the gap between skills required and skills learned by end users in database design. Development of tutors that teach specific database design skills irrespective of the software package used in implementation has important implications for practitioners and researchers.