Showing papers in "Work & Stress in 2005"
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a new tool for the measurement of burnout called the Copenhagen Burnout Inventory (CBI), which consists of three scales measuring personal burnout, work related burnout and client-related burnout.
Abstract: So far, the large majority of studies on burnout in the international literature have employed the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). In this paper we criticize the MBI on a number of points and present a new tool for the measurement of burnout: the Copenhagen Burnout Inventory (CBI). The CBI consists of three scales measuring personal burnout, work-related burnout, and client-related burnout, for use in different domains. On the basis of an ongoing prospective study of burnout in employees in the human service sector, the PUMA study (Project on Burnout, Motivation and Job Satisfaction; N=1914 at baseline), we analysed the validity and reliability of the CBI. All three scales were found to have very high internal reliability, and non-response rates were small. The scales differentiated well between occupational groups in the human service sector, and the expected pattern with regard to correlations with other measures of fatigue and psychological well-being was found. Furthermore, the three scales ...
1,930 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors developed evidence for the validity and reliability of an English-language translation of the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI) and assessed the characteristics of the OLBI using data from 2599 employees across two samples from the United States.
Abstract: While the most commonly employed burnout measure has been the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), researchers have been troubled by some of the psychometric limitations of that scale (e.g. wording of the scale items) as well as the limited conceptualization of burnout upon which it is based. As a result, Demerouti et al. have developed an alternative measure of burnout, the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI). The purpose of this paper is to develop evidence for the validity and reliability of an English-language translation of the OLBI. As such, this study is among the first validation studies of the OLBI, and the first to assess the characteristics of the OLBI an English-speaking sample. Using data from 2599 employees across two samples from the United States (a generalized sample of working adults and a sample of fire department employees), our preliminary multi-trait, multi-method (MTMM) and confirmatory factor analyses suggested that the OLBI may be a viable alternative to the Maslach Burnout In...
595 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) is used to measure burnout, and the authors present an alternative, more general instrument for measuring burnout that exclusively focuses on exhaustion.
Abstract: In this edition of Work & Stress, Kristensen and his colleagues critically discuss the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) and present an alternative, more general instrument to measure burnout that exclusively focuses on exhaustion. Here we critically examine their reasons for developing a new burnout measure, as well as the theoretical foundations of this measure. Whereas we agree with Kristensen et al.'s remarks concerning the availability and item wording of the MBI, we do not share their concerns regarding its theoretical underpinnings. In our view, burnout should be conceptualized as a primarily work-related syndrome of (at least) exhaustion and depersonalization/cynicism. The MBI would seem to fit that conceptualization very well.
568 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the Survey Work-home Interaction (SWING) questionnaire was developed for measuring work-home interaction and four types of workhome interaction were distinguished and measured by using 22 (including 13 self-developed) items.
Abstract: This paper reports on the stepwise development of a new questionnaire for measuring work-home interaction, i.e. the Survey Work-home Interaction—NijmeGen, the SWING). Inspired by insights from work psychology, more specifically from Effort-Recovery Theory (Meijman & Mulder, 1998), we defined work-home interaction by differentiating between the direction and quality of influence. Four types of work-home interaction were distinguished and measured by using 22 (including 13 self-developed) items. By using data from five independent samples (total N=2472), validity evidence was provided based on the internal structure of the questionnaire. The results showed that the questionnaire reliably measured four empirically distinct types of work-home interaction, and that this four-dimensional structure was largely invariant across the five samples as well as across relevant subgroups. Validity evidence was also provided based on the relations with external (theoretically relevant) variables (i.e. job charac...
513 citations
TL;DR: This article reviewed the evidence in favour of the three most influential of these (Leiter and Maslach's model, Golembiewski, Boudreau, Munzenrider, & Luo's phase model; and Lee and Ashforth's model) and compared them with each other using structural equation modelling, drawing on longitudinal data from two Dutch samples.
Abstract: Arising from interest concerning the possibility of causal relationships among the three components of the Maslach Burnout Inventory, several process models have been proposed for the development of burnout. The present paper first reviews the evidence in favour of the three most influential of these (Leiter and Maslach's model (1988); Golembiewski, Boudreau, Munzenrider, & Luo's (1996) phase model; and Lee and Ashforth's model (1993)). These three models, and our own model (which integrates of two of them, and includes feedback effects of depersonalization on emotional exhaustion) are then compared with each other using structural equation modelling, drawing on longitudinal data from two Dutch samples (total N=1185). The review revealed that none of the seven previous studies on this issue provided any convincing support for any particular causal order proposed so far. In contrast, our own study showed that high levels of exhaustion were associated with high levels of depersonalization over time...
371 citations
TL;DR: This article used a cognitive failure questionnaire (CFQ) to assess the level of self-reported attentional difficulties in daily life and measured performance on tasks of sustained attention and response inhibition (the SART and the Bourdon-Wiersma Test).
Abstract: Professional burnout is a stress-related disorder, having mental exhaustion due to work stress as its most important characteristic. Burned out individuals also often complain about attentional problems. However, it is currently not clear whether such complaints are based on true cognitive deficits or whether they merely reflect the way burned out individuals rate their own cognitive performance. To confirm the cognitive complaints we used a cognitive failure questionnaire (CFQ) to assess the level of self-reported attentional difficulties in daily life. We also measured performance on tasks of sustained attention and response inhibition (the SART and the Bourdon-Wiersma Test). We compared three groups: (1) a group of ‘burned out’ individuals (n=13) who stopped working due to their symptoms and sought professional treatment; (2) teachers at a vocational training institute (n=16) who reported high levels of burnout symptoms but continued to work; and (3) teachers from the same institute (n=14) who reported...
290 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, four papers on burnout appeared in the special edition of Work & Stress, and they add to the pool of knowledge regarding the prevalence of burnout and its chronic nature.
Abstract: Four papers on burnout appear in this issue of Work & Stress. This commentary gives an indication of how they add to the pool of knowledge regarding the prevalence of burnout and its chronic nature. A lapse common to most papers on this subject is then discussed: the lack of attention to burnout's relationships with other negative affective states, primarily depression. Finally, some of the major similarities and differences among various measures of burnout represented in this special edition are discussed. The concluding comment addresses future theoretical challenges to burnout researchers.
249 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the meaning of occupational stress, its antecedents and outcomes, and ways by which it may be managed were examined using semi-structured interviews with 45 individuals from a range of occupations.
Abstract: An individual's beliefs in relation to stress are likely to affect their perceptions, and hence their work-related actions (such as absenteeism). In this paper, lay representations of work stress were investigated utilising semi-structured interviews with 45 individuals from a range of occupations. The meaning of occupational stress, its antecedents and outcomes, and ways by which it may be managed were examined. Dominant factors were established through the use of thematic content analysis. Similarities and differences were found between lay and professional discourses on work stress. Results indicate that lay representations of occupational stress are multi-faceted. Little consensus was found in how participants interpreted the concept: a diverse range of personal, environmental, and societal factors was highlighted. A different (and arguably more complex) range of definitions of job stress and the manner in which it impacts on individuals was revealed than has been reported in previous studies...
198 citations
TL;DR: The experience of job insecurity has been linked to several different outcomes, such as negative attitudes towards work and the organization, turnover intention, as well as health complaints as mentioned in this paper, which is linked to negative attitudes and negative attitudes.
Abstract: The experience of job insecurity has been linked to several different outcomes, such as negative attitudes towards work and the organization, turnover intention, as well as health complaints. Howev ...
195 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined whether early retirement thoughts can be explained by job demands, job control and their interaction, a hypothesis derived from the job demand-control model of Karasek (1979).
Abstract: Given the ageing workforce, there is an increasing interest in understanding the retirement process. This study examined whether early retirement thoughts can be explained by job demands, job control and their interaction, a hypothesis derived from the job demand-control model of Karasek (1979). The moderated hierarchical regression analyses of early retirement thoughts were based on a sample of 274 male and 2798 female employees aged 20 to 65 years in Finnish social and health care. Our results suggest that job demands and job control are independent predictors of early retirement thoughts even when adjusted for age, gender, educational level and self-rated health. Furthermore, our results offered support for the interaction effect of job demands and job control on early retirement thoughts. Among people over 45 years old, these associations were even stronger, compared to the whole sample. This indicates that one way to reduce the number of people taking early retirement would be to put the emphasis on psychosocial factors, such as job control, affecting the older workers.
175 citations
TL;DR: This paper investigated the role of several gender-relevant variables, such as childcare obligations, job characteristics, and work attitudes in emotional exhaustion and sickness absence in 404 male and female nurses in an institution for people with learning difficulties.
Abstract: Reports in the literature vary regarding the existence of gender differences in relation to burnout and sickness absence. To investigate this, the present study was aimed at investigating the role of several gender-relevant variables, particularly childcare obligations, job characteristics, and work attitudes in emotional exhaustion and sickness absence in 404 male and female nurses in an institution for people with learning difficulties. Questionnaires were administered reflecting demographic and job characteristics, work and non-work attitudes, and emotional exhaustion (as measured by the Emotional Exhaustion Scale of the Maslach Burnout Inventory). Female nurses were expected to report higher levels of emotional exhaustion and to be absent through sickness more often than men. Also, childcare investment, job characteristics, and (non) work attitudes were expected—via emotional exhaustion—to predict gender differences in sickness absence. It was found that women did not have higher sickness abs...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors found alternative employment arrangements to be associated with both impaired and improved well-being, since such inconsistencies are likely to derive from the type of employm...
Abstract: Previous research has found alternative employment arrangements to be associated with both impaired and improved well-being. Since such inconsistencies are likely to derive from the type of employm ...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors evaluated the effectiveness of stress management training in the treatment of the work-related effects of stress by comparing the role of modifying dysfunctional cognitions with the teaching of appropriate behavioural coping strategies.
Abstract: Transactional models of stress emphasize the importance of cognitive appraisal of potential stressors in the determination of the stress response. This appraisal can be modified by the use of techniques normally associated with cognitive therapy. The contribution of a specifically cognitive component when intervening in work-related stress has not been well evaluated to date. This research seeks to determine the effectiveness of stress management training in the treatment of the work-related effects of stress by comparing the role of modifying dysfunctional cognitions with the teaching of appropriate behavioural coping strategies. Participants were allocated to one of two intervention conditions or to a waiting list control group. Those in the intervention conditions received group stress management either with the focus on delivering cognitive therapy techniques or with the focus on behavioural coping skills. Measures of general health were taken at the beginning and end of intervention and at 3-month follow-up. Participants in the cognitive therapy groups who were reporting symptoms of general ill-health at the start of the intervention showed a significant improvement at follow-up. Cognitive therapy appears to have been an effective intervention in work-related stress. Those in the behavioural group showed a smaller but still clinically effective improvement. Results are discussed in terms of methodological issues and implications for future research. It is suggested that changes in cognitive appraisal may need to be developed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the relationships among altruism, burnout and a positive outcome, namely, the engagement in organizational citizenship behaviour, and the results from the 178 respondents indicated that altruism is related to organizational citizenship behavior.
Abstract: Most studies of burnout have focused on lack of resources, prevalence of burnout, and negative outcomes. In contrast, this study examined the relationships among altruism, burnout and a positive outcome, namely, the engagement in organizational citizenship behaviour. Web questionnaires were distributed to employees in three professional organizations. The results from the 178 respondents indicated that altruism is related to organizational citizenship behaviour. Of the three dimensions of burnout, only reduced personal accomplishment was (negatively) associated with engagement in organizational citizenship behaviours. Implications of the results are discussed and directions for future research are offered.
TL;DR: The authors used discourse analysis to explore the way in which employees understand work stress and found that stress discourse fosters a sense of helplessness and ambiguity by not acknowledging external influences on clerical workers' experiences, such as their place within the power structure of the organization, and limiting their sense of agency and control over problems experienced at work.
Abstract: This study used discourse analysis to explore the way in which employees understand work stress. Twenty-two female clerical workers in a Canadian city participated in focus group meetings where they talked about and made sense of their experiences of work stress. The women's accounts were analysed using discourse analysis methods (i.e. an examination of how talk is constructed). The findings revealed that talking about being stressed provides a socially acceptable way of expressing discomfort and regaining a sense of importance that is lost through feeling under-valued and under-appreciated in the organization. In contrast, admitting to being unable to cope with stress was considered to be ‘abnormal’. The stress discourse fosters a sense of helplessness and ambiguity by not acknowledging external influences on clerical workers’ experiences, such as their place within the power structure of the organization, and by limiting their sense of agency and control over problems experienced at work. The i...
TL;DR: This paper argued that future burnout research will benefit from adding two perspectives, as depersonalization may result from insufficient recovery during off-job time, and that adding a day-level perspective will shed more light on the burnout phenomenon.
Abstract: This commentary argues that future burnout research will benefit from adding two perspectives. First, as depersonalization may result from insufficient recovery during off-job time, it will be fruitful to include the investigation of off-work experiences into burnout research. Second, adding a day-level perspective will shed more light on the burnout phenomenon.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors show how new dimensions of psychological job demands are related to two sets of outcome variables, employee health and active learning, and how these relationships are modified or interact with social support and types of job control.
Abstract: Recent changes in job content may have led to changes in job demands and control, and earlier operationalizations of the demand concept may be too general (MT). The aim of this paper is to show how new dimensions of psychological job demands are related to two sets of outcome variables, employee health and active learning, and how these relationships are modified or interact with social support and types of job control. The study was carried out as a survey among employees of 13 electric companies in Norway, N=2435. Lisrel was used to assess the fit of the proposed models. Compared to the traditional demands control model, an extended version used in this study increased the explained variance on an average by 4% on various occupational health variables. It was found that various dimensions of demands were differentially related to the outcome variables. Skill discretion uniformly reduced the effect of the demands: for groups low in skill discretion there was a stronger relationship between deman...
Journal Article•
TL;DR: The concept of burnout was first introduced some three decades ago, and despite this passage of time and the resources that occupational health psychologists have devoted to its study, burnout still provokes much debate as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The concept of burnout was first introduced some three decades ago, so it is surprising that, despite this passage of time and the resources that occupational health psychologists have devoted to its study, burnout still provokes much debate. The significance of the first few papers on the subject, by Freudenberger (1974, 1975) and Maslach (1976), both working independently in the US, was that they provided an initial description of the burnout phenomenon, and showed that it could be a relatively common occurrence in human service work. Within 10 years, the concept and its study had been established in many areas of applied psychology, and Maslach and Jackson (1981a and b) had described the development of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). This measurement tool then came to dominate the burgeoning research into burnout. Since then there have been many developments, including the introduction of the MBI-General Survey by Schaufeli, Leiter, Maslach and Jackson (1996) that extended the instrument to the measurement of burnout in other occupations. Over the years there has been much debate as to what burnout actually is, its antecedents and how it might be best measured. In 1993, Maslach and Schaufeli summarized many of the issues that still today remain largely unanswered. One central question is the dimensionality of the burnout concept: does it comprise one, two or three dimensions? Many researchers have questioned whether or not it is necessary to use all of the three MBI components: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and (lack of) personal accomplishment. Some have now dropped personal accomplishment, retaining emotional exhaustion and depersonalization; most agree that emotional exhaustion is the core component. Others have remained loyal to the original proposal but argued for an expansion, or reframing of the three components. These various approaches have led to the development of new measurement instruments. When, by chance, Work & Stress recently received four interesting papers on burnout, we decided to use these as the basis of a special edition. To support these papers, we invited commentaries from a small selection of the leading players in the area. The authors of these commentaries were invited to express their opinions on the conceptualization and measurement of burnout, and in doing so to cite the papers in this edition as examples. While these commentators are at times critical, we believe that the publication of such debate is healthy and can only benefit research. The authors of the four papers have been happy to have their work appraised in this way. We are sure that the readers of Work & Stress will be aware that the comments made might equally well apply to much other published literature on burnout, and also that we could have included papers on other aspects of burnout. However, our intention here has been to provide a snapshot of current research and discussion on the subject. We trust that this will prove interesting and stimulate discussion, and we will welcome responses.
TL;DR: In conclusion, retirement attitudes in hospital physicians seem to be related to organizational and managerial factors that are potentially amendable to intervention, which has implications for retaining hospital physicians who might otherwise retire.
Abstract: There is a need to understand the associations between attitudes towards retirement in specific occupations and various psychosocial and work-related factors. This study identified correlates of retirement thoughts and retirement preference in hospital physicians. The sample comprised 447 (251 male and 196 female) physicians from three hospital districts in Finland. After adjustment for gender, age and salary, minor psychiatric morbidity increased likelihood of retirement thoughts and retirement preference. Retirement thoughts and retirement preference were more common in doctors reporting low job control, poor teamwork and unjust supervision than in doctors perceiving their working conditions more favorably. Work preference was associated with high overwork. The associations of work characteristics with retirement thoughts and retirement preference largely persisted after control for indicators of health and social circumstances. In conclusion, in addition to demographic and financial factors and health, retirement attitudes in hospital physicians seem to be related to organizational and managerial factors that are potentially amendable to intervention. This has implications for retaining hospital physicians who might otherwise retire.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the structure and the factorial invariance of the 13-item sense of coherence (SOC) scale in two employment groups (unemployment/lay-off experiences vs. continuous full-time employment) and across two measurement times.
Abstract: This 5-year follow-up study investigated the structure and the factorial invariance of the 13-item sense of coherence (SOC) scale (Antonovsky, 1987a) in two employment groups (unemployment/lay-off experiences vs. continuous full-time employment) and across two measurement times. In addition, the stability of SOC between these two employment groups was compared. The postal questionnaire data was collected twice, in 1992 and in 1997. The participants were Finnish technical designers (N=352) aged between 25 and 40 years in 1992. A total of 51% of the investigated participants had been employed full-time during the 5-year follow-up period and 49% had been unemployed and/or laid off for a total period of at least one month during the follow-up. The confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the SOC scale measured one general second-order SOC factor consisting of three, first-order factors of meaningfulness, comprehensibility, and manageability. The results also indicated that the scale was best used as an 11-...
TL;DR: This article used a two-stage approach to structural equation modeling, exploring hypothesized structural models on an initial data set (N=195) prior to confirmation on an independent replication data set(N=239) using multi-sample methods.
Abstract: Few studies have examined the role of managerial support in the adaptation of entrants to healthcare. The purpose of this study was to identify the job characteristic and role-related variables that mediate the effects of managerial support and personality on the mental and physical health and sickness absence in two independent groups of new recruits to a healthcare organization. Entrants to a healthcare environment (student nurses) were surveyed 25 weeks after entry. Latent variables represented neuroticism, demand, control, role clarity and affective outcome variables in a simplified version of the Michigan model of work stress (House, 1981). This study used a two-stage approach to structural equation modelling, exploring hypothesized structural models on an initial data set (N=195) prior to confirmation on an independent replication data set (N=239) using multi-sample methods. Finally the confirmed model of choice was evaluated using the combined data (N=434). Emotional distress reported at 6 months w...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors analyzed associations of work stress with subjective health in a group of German freelancers working in the media industry and found significant effects of high effort in combination with low reward (money, esteem, promotion prospects, job security) on subjective health.
Abstract: In recent years there has been a steady growth of non-standard work contracts in advanced societies. These contracts are characterized by increased flexibility of work arrangements and increased job instability, which holds particularly true for the media industry. This pilot study analyses associations of work stress with subjective health in a group of German freelancers (N = 290) working in the media industry. The measurement of work stress is based on the effort-reward imbalance model. Results of logistic regression analyses indicate significant effects of high effort in combination with low reward (money, esteem, promotion prospects, job security) on subjective health in men and women, with the effects being higher in men. Moreover, among men a critical pattern of coping with work stress enhanced the reported effect. In conclusion, the preliminary evidence from this study indicates an elevated risk of poor subjective health among freelance workers who are exposed to adverse psychosocial work...
TL;DR: Dentists with high scores for dentistry-specific work-related stressors were more likely to have evidence of psychological disturbance, and the relationships between psychological disturbance and musculoskeletal discomfort needs to be taken into account when considering any multidisciplinary approach to prevention.
Abstract: There has been little research into the stressors, psychological distress and musculoskeletal symptoms experienced by dentists. The present study was carried out among a random sample of New Zealand dentists (N=413). The present study aimed to identify the severity of work psychosocial stressors, examine the occurrence of musculoskeletal discomfort and psychological disturbance, and determine relationships between these factors. The average age of the dentists was 43 years, with 74% being male. The annual prevalence of symptoms in both the lower back or neck was 63%, with 49% experiencing symptoms in the shoulders. Older dentists were no more likely to suffer musculoskeletal discomfort than younger dentists. The highest ranking dentistry-specific work-related stressor was ‘patients having a medical emergency’ with 78% scoring this stressor very highly. Dentists scored mental demands as the highest general work-related stressor. One-fifth of the dentists scored highly for psychological disturbance...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors identify physical activity and mental well-being typologies in corporate employees, using both quantitative and qualitative research methods, and validate four distinct clusters were identified, and validated statistically by means of a MANOVA test.
Abstract: There is now a body of evidence suggesting that physical activity contributes to physical and mental well-being. The aim of the study was to identify physical activity and mental well-being typologies in corporate employees, using both quantitative and qualitative research methods. This method of identification of at-risk groups may inform efforts to design and deliver more cost-effective wellness interventions in the workplace. In the quantitative phase, participants were 312 corporate employees (n=204 males and n=108 females), representing various job roles in a multi-national IT company. The mean age of the participants was 34.1 (SD=8.1). Questionnaires were administered through the internet to measure physical activity and indicators of global, work-related, and physical well-being. A hierarchical cluster analysis examined the number of physical activity and well-being clusters. Four distinct clusters were identified, and validated statistically by means of a MANOVA test on mental well-being indicator...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a model from the patient's perspective that takes account of situational variables, while also focusing upon patient cognitions, and consider physiological responses related to arousal that might underpin aggression in an anxiety-provoking situation.
Abstract: Aggression towards health care staff has become the focus for research as well as for government intervention. Negative effects upon staff and organizations have been established, yet few detailed explanations are offered for this aggression, and none represents the patient's perspective. This paper presents a model from the patient's perspective that takes account of situational variables, while also focusing upon patient cognitions. It also considers physiological responses related to arousal that might underpin aggression in an anxiety-provoking situation. In a previous study the frequency with which aggression was preceded by some anxiety-provoking event and the extent to which assailants displayed diminished cognitive processing were established; these were incorporated into the model. Increased anxiety commonly experienced by patients can have a negative effect upon cognitive processing. Anxiety generates a hyper-vigilance for threatening stimuli, induces selective attentional bias for thre...
TL;DR: The assessment of self-report coping continues to pose difficulties for stress and coping research as mentioned in this paper, as the inclusion of multiple coping constructs, as well as the distinction between state and trait-b...
Abstract: The assessment of self-report coping continues to pose difficulties for stress and coping research. The inclusion of multiple coping constructs, as well as the distinction between state and trait-b...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors tested a group-based intervention for increased activity in safety work through group discussion of accident/incident experience; to study occurred incidents/accidents and how such events were managed.
Abstract: Although occupational accidents are common in fishery, safety work is often not given priority by the fishermen. The aims of this study were to test a group-based intervention for increased activity in safety work through group discussion of accident/incident experience; to study occurred incidents/accidents and how such events were managed; and to study intervention effects on activity in safety work, risk acceptance and perceived manageability of risks. A sample of men from five crews (11 men) of Swedish fishermen participated. The study had a one group pre-test–post-test design for questionnaire data. The emphasis was on qualitative information collected during the intervention and interviews. The results indicated that accident causes could be appraised as being unmanageable even when technical solutions were possible. Psychological factors may cause incidents not to be documented or discussed. Incident experience seldom leads to preventive measures. Interaction between structural, social and...
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In this paper, the distribution of paid and unpaid work as related to age, occupational level and number of children among Swedish male and female white-collar workers was investigated. And the authors found that:
Abstract: Total workload: the distribution of paid and unpaid work as related to age, occupational level and number of children among Swedish male and female white-collar workers : Work&Stress
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a new tool for the measurement of burnout called the Copenhagen Burnout Inventory (CBI), which consists of three scales measuring personal burnout, work-related burnout and client related burnout.
Abstract: So far, the large majority of studies on burnout in the international literature have employed the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). In this paper we criticize the MBI on a number of points and present a new tool for the measurement of burnout: the Copenhagen Burnout Inventory (CBI). The CBI consists of three scales measuring personal burnout, work-related burnout, and client-related burnout, for use in different domains. On the basis of an ongoing prospective study of burnout in employees in the human service sector, the PUMA study (Project on Burnout, Motivation and Job Satisfaction; N = 1914 at baseline), we analysed the validity and reliability of the CBI. All three scales were found to have very high internal reliability, and non-response rates were small. The scales differentiated well between occupational groups in the human service sector, and the expected pattern with regard to correlations with other measures of fatigue and psychological well-being was found. Furthermore, the three scales predicted future sickness absence, sleep problems, use of pain-killers, and intention to quit. Analyses of changes over time showed that substantial proportions of the employees changed with regard to burnout levels. It is concluded that the analyses indicate very satisfactory reliability and validity for the CBI instrument. The CBI is being used in a number of countries and translations into eight languages are available.