Showing papers on "Judgement published in 2000"

Choices, Values, and Frames

Abstract: This book presents the definitive exposition of 'prospect theory', a compelling alternative to the classical utility theory of choice. Building on the 1982 volume, Judgement Under Uncertainty, this book brings together seminal papers on prospect theory from economists, decision theorists, and psychologists, including the work of the late Amos Tversky, whose contributions are collected here for the first time. While remaining within a rational choice framework, prospect theory delivers more accurate, empirically verified predictions in key test cases, as well as helping to explain many complex, real-world puzzles. In this volume, it is brought to bear on phenomena as diverse as the principles of legal compensation, the equity premium puzzle in financial markets, and the number of hours that New York cab drivers choose to drive on rainy days. Theoretically elegant and empirically robust, this volume shows how prospect theory has matured into a new science of decision making.

Beyond valence: Toward a model of emotion-specific influences on judgement and choice

Abstract: Most theories of affective influences on judgement and choice take a valence-based approach, contrasting the effects of positive versus negative feeling states. These approaches have not specified if and when distinct emotions of the same valence have different effects on judgement. In this article, we propose a model of emotion-specific influences on judgement and choice. We posit that each emotion is defined by a tendency to perceive new events and objects in ways that are consistent with the original cognitive-appraisal dimensions of the emotion. To pit the valence and appraisal-tendency approaches against one another, we present a study that addresses whether two emotions of the same valence but differing appraisals—anger and fear—relate in different ways to risk perception. Consistent with the appraisal-tendency hypothesis, fearful people made pessimistic judgements of future events whereas angry people made optimistic judgements. In the Discussion we expand the proposed model and review evidence sup...

The critique of judgment

Abstract: Considered by Kant to be the culmination of his critical philosophy, "The Critique of Judgement" was the last work in the trilogy begun with "The Critique of Pure Reason" and continued with "The Critique of Practical Reason". In this work Kant seeks to establish the a priori principles underlying the faculty of judgement, just as he did in his previous analyses of pure and practical reason. The first part deals with the subject of our aesthetic sensibility; we respond to certain natural phenomena as beautiful, says Kant, when we recognise in nature a harmonious order that satisfies the mind's own need for order. The second half of the critique concentrates on the apparent teleology in nature's design of organisms, i.e., organisms display a complex inter-working of parts, which are subordinated as means to serve the purpose of the whole. All of this suggests, concludes Kant, that our minds are inclined to attribute a final purpose to nature's design and to life as a whole. This natural tendency to see purpose in nature is the main principle underlying all of our judgements. Although this might imply a super-sensible Designer behind nature and a theistic interpretation of the world, in the final analysis Kant maintains an agnostic stance. Ever the objective philosopher he insists that though we are predisposed to read design and purpose into nature, we cannot therefore prove a supernatural dimension or the existence of God. Such considerations are beyond reason and are solely the province of faith.

Representation of a perceptual decision in developing oculomotor commands.

Abstract: Behaviour often depends on the ability to make categorical judgements about sensory information acquired over time. Such judgements require a comparison of the evidence favouring the alternatives1,2,3,4, but how the brain forms these comparisons is unknown. Here we show that in a visual discrimination task, the accumulating balance of sensory evidence favouring one interpretation over another is evident in the neural circuits that generate the behavioural response. We trained monkeys to make a direction judgement about dynamic random-dot motion5 and to indicate their judgement with an eye movement to a visual target. We interrupted motion viewing with electrical microstimulation of the frontal eye field and analysed the resulting, evoked eye movements for evidence of ongoing activity associated with the oculomotor response6,7,8,9,10. Evoked eye movements deviated in the direction of the monkey's judgement. The magnitude of the deviation depended on motion strength and viewing time. The oculomotor signals responsible for these deviations reflected the accumulated motion information that informed the monkey's choices on the discrimination task. Thus, for this task, decision formation and motor preparation appear to share a common level of neural organization.

Performativities and fabrications in the education economy: Towards the performative society?

Abstract: This paper 'joins in' and contributes to an emerging stream of ideas and conversations related to 'performativity' in education and social policyuwhich includes, among others, Jill Blackmore, Judyth Sachs, Erica McWilliam, John Elliott, Tricia Broadfoot and Bob Lingard. The paper attempts to look at both the capillary detail and 'the bigger picture' of performativity i,n .[.he public sector. Ideally it should be read in relation to the multitude of 'performative texts' and 'texts of performativity' with which we are continually confronted and which increasingly inform and deform our practice 2. The paper is intended to be both very theoretical and very practical, very abstract and very immediate 3. Let me begin by offering a working definition of performativity. Performativity is a technology, a culture and a mode of regulation, or a system of 'terror' in Lyotard's words, that employs judgements, comparisons and displays as means of control, attrition and change. The performances (of individual subjects or organisations) serve as measures of productivity or output, or displays of 'quality', or 'moments' of promotion (there is a felicititous ambiguity around this word) or inspection. They stand for, encapsulate or represent the worth, quality or value of an individual or organisation within a field of judgement. 'An equation between wealth, efficiency, and truth is thus established' (Lyotard 1984, p. 46). The issue of who controls the field of judgement is crucial. 'Accountability' and 'competition' are the lingua franca of this new discourse of power as Lyotard describes it. A discourse which is the emerging form of legitimation in post-industrial societies for both the production of knowledge and

Bounds of Justice

Abstract: In this collection of essays Onora O'Neill explores and argues for an account of justice that is fundamentally cosmopolitan rather than civic, yet takes serious account of institutions and boundaries, and of human diversity and vulnerability. Starting from conceptions that are central to any account of justice - those of reason, action, judgement, coercion, obligations and rights - she discusses whether and how culturally or politically specific concepts and views, which limit the claims and scope of justice, can be avoided. She then examines the demands and scope of just institutions, arguing that there are good reasons for taking the claims of distant strangers seriously, but that doing so points not to a world without boundaries but to one of porous boundaries and dispersed power. Bounds of Justice will be of interest to a wide range of readers in philosophy, politics and international relations.

A Neo-Kohlbergian Approach to Morality Research

Abstract: Kohlberg's work in moral judgement has been criticised by many philosophers and psychologists. Building on Kohlberg's core assumptions, we propose a model of moral judgement (hereafter the neo-Kohlbergian approach) that addresses these concerns. Using 25 years of data gathered with the Defining Issues Test (DIT), we present an overview of Minnesota's neo-Kohlbergian approach, using Kohlberg's basic starting points, ideas from Cognitive Science (especially schema theory), and developments in moral philosophy.

The roles of embodiment, emotion and lifeworld for rationality and agency in nursing practice

Abstract: Nursing practice invites nurses to embody caring practices that meet, comfort and empower vulnerable others. Such a practice requires a commitment to meeting and helping the other in ways that liberate and strengthen and avoid imposing the will of the caregiver on the patient. Being good and acting well (phronesis) occur in particular situations. A socially constituted and embodied view of agency, as developed by Merleau-Ponty, provides an alternative to Cartesian and Kantian views of agency. A socially constituted, embodied view of agency is less mechanistic and less deterministic than Descartes' and Kant's radical separation of mind and body, and more responsive and generative than Kant's vision of moral agency as constituted by autonomous choice makers who are uninfluenced by emotion. The role of emotion in perception and judgement is explored in this paper. Distinctions between techne and phronesis are drawn. The role of emotion in market relationships and procedural ethics drawn for the abstract, general other are strategies for exchange of goods and services, but these same market relationships are dependent on well-functioning nonmarket relations of noncalculated giving and receiving.

The reality of moral expectations: A sociology of situated judgement

Abstract: The paper offers a modelling of the sense of justice as it is displayed in ordinary situated disputes. While this model accounts for a plurality of legitimate forms of evaluation which are used in the process of critique and justification, it escapes a relativism of values by demonstrating that all these forms satisfy a set of common requirements. The reasonable character of the everyday sense of justice is also anchored in a reality test involving the engagement of objects which qualify for a certain form of evaluation. The paper discusses this model in relation to competing theories of justice, and models of social action and interaction.

inuences on judgement and choice

Abstract: Most theories of affective inuences on judgement and choice take a valence- based approach, contrasting the effects of positive versus negative feeling states. These approaches have not speci® ed if and when distinct emotions of the same valence have different effects on judgement. In this article, we propose a model of emotion-speci® c inuences on judgement and choice. We posit that each emotion is de® ned by a tendency to perceive new events and objects in ways that are consistent with the original cognitive-appraisal dimensions of the emotion. To pit the valence and appraisal-tendency approaches against one another, we present a study that addresses whether two emotions of the same valence but differing appraisals- anger and fear- relate in different ways to risk perception. Consistent with the appraisal- tendency hypothesis, fearful people made pessimistic judgements of future events whereas angry people made optimistic judgements. In the Discussion we expand the proposed model and review evidence supporting two social moderators of appraisal-tendency processes.

Clarifying the concepts of confidence and competence to produce appropriate self‐evaluation measurement scales

Abstract: Introduction This paper reviews the literature on self-evaluation and discusses the findings of a small-scale qualitative study which explored the terms 'confidence' and 'competence' as useful measures in a self-evaluation scale. Four pre-registration house officers took part in interviews and completed a provisional instrument to assess their perceived competence. Findings Competence and confidence are useful terms for house officers expressing beliefs about their ability to perform their job but the terms should not be used synonymously. In our study, 'competent' represented what individuals knew about their ability and was based on the individual's previous experience of the task. 'Confident' described a judgement which influenced whether an individual was willing or not to undertake an activity. Confidence was not necessarily based on known levels of competence and therefore performance of tasks which were unfamiliar to the house officer also involved the assessment of risk. The authors give examples of task and skill scales which may be useful in the process of self-evaluation by pre-registration house officers. Conclusions The authors suggest that the process of assessing oneself is complicated, and by its very nature can never be objective or free from the beliefs and values individuals hold about themselves. Therefore self-evaluation instruments are best used to help individuals analyse their work practices and to promote reflection on performance. They should not be used to judge the 'accuracy' of the individual's evaluation.

[Evaluation in the health sector: concepts and methods].

Abstract: The practice of evaluation has existed in one form or another for as long as one can remember and is central to all processes of learning. Today, evaluation is a popular concept grouping together multiple and diverse realities. This article aims to propose a conceptual framework for evaluation that is broad and universal enough to allow all those concerned with evaluation of health services (regardless of their disciplines and interests) to better understand each other, to perform better evaluations, and to use them in a more pertinent manner. We will begin by defining evaluation as the process which consists of making a judgement on the value of an intervention by implementing a system which can provide scientifically valid and socially legitimate information on regarding this particular intervention (or any of its components) to the different stakeholders concerned, such that they can form an opinion from their perspective on the intervention and reach a judgement which can translate into action. We define "intervention" as any organized system of action (a structure, actors and their practices, processes of action, one or many finalities and an environment) aiming to, in a given environment, during a given time period, modify the foreseeable course of a phenomenon to correct a problematic situation. An intervention can be a technique, a medication, a treatment, an organisation, a program, a policy or even a complex system like the health care system. Various interventions, regardless of their nature, can be the object of two types of evaluation. Normative evaluation is based on appreciation of each component of the intervention according to criteria and standards. This type of evaluation is defined as an activity which consists of making a judgement regarding an intervention by comparing the resources utilized and their organisation (structure); services and goods produced (process) and results obtained to criteria and standards (in other words, summaries of what is good and right). Did the intervention correspond to what should have been done according to the standards utilized? Evaluative research aims to employ valid scientific methods to analyze relationships between different components of an intervention. More specifically, evaluation research can be classified into six types of analysis, which employ different research strategies. Strategic analysis allows appreciation of the pertinence of an intervention; logical analysis, the soundness of the theoretical and operational bases of the intervention; productivity analysis, the technical efficiency with which resources are mobilized to produce goods or services; analysis of effects, effectiveness of goods and services in producing results; efficiency analysis, relations between the costs of the resources (or the services) used and the results; implementation analysis, appreciation of interactions between the process of the intervention and the context of implementation in the production of effects. The official finalities of all evaluation processes are of four types: (1)strategic, to aid the planning and development of an intervention, (2) formative, to supply information to improve an intervention in progress, (3) summative, to determine the effects of an intervention (to decide if it should be maintained, transformed or suspended), (4) fundamental, to contribute to the advancement of empirical and theoretical knowledge regarding the intervention. In addition, experience acquired in the field of evaluation suggests that evaluation is also productive in that it allows actors, in an organized setting, to reconsider the links between the objectives given, practices developed and their context of action. This task of achieving coherence is continuous and is one of the intrinsic conditions of action in an organized setting. In this perspective, evaluation can have a key role, given that it is not employed to legitimize new forms of control but rather to favor debate and th

An introduction to the Evaluation of Learning Technology

Abstract: Evaluation can be characterised as the process by which people make judgements about value and worth; however, in the context of learning technology, this judgement process is complex and often controversial. This article provides a context for analysing these complexities by summarising important debates from the wider evaluation community. These are then related to the context of learning technology, resulting in the identification of a range of specific issues. These include the paradigm debate, the move from expert-based to practitioner -based evaluation, attempts to provide tools to support practitioner-led evaluation, authenticity, the problem of defining and measuring costs, the role of checklists, the influence of the quality agenda on evaluation and the way in which the process of evaluation is itself affected by the use of learning technology. Finally, these issues are drawn together in order to produce an agenda for further research in this area.

Working Knowledge: The New Vocationalism and Higher Education

Abstract: Foreword by Ronald Barnett Acknowledgements Contributors Working knowledge an introduction to the new business of learning Learning for real work-based education in universities 'Real world education' the vocationalisation of the university Knowledge that works judgement and the university curriculum Eros and the virtual enframing working knowledge through technology The policy environment of work-based learning globalisation, institutions and the workplace Imposing structure, enabling play new knowledge production and the 'real world' university Deschooling vocational knowledge work-based learning and the politics of curriculum Learning to work, working to learn theories of situational education The organization of identity four cases Organizational gothic transfusing vitality and transforming the corporate body through work-based learning Index.

Voodoo Science: The Road from Foolishness to Fraud

Abstract: IT'S NOT NEWS, IT'S ENTERTAINMENT THE BELIEF GENE PLACEBOS HAVE SIDE EFFECTS THE VIRTUAL ASTRONAUT THERE OUGHT TO BE A LAW PERPETUUM MOBILE CURRENTS OF FEAR JUDGEMENT DAY ONLY MUSHROOMS GROW IN THE DARK HOW STRANGE IS THE UNIVERSE? INDEX

Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process

Abstract: Firstly the paper pointed out the defects of AHP. Then,the paper introduced the concept of fuzzy consistent judgement matrix,and studied the properties of fuzzy consistent judgement matrix and the rationality to denote the important comparision of elements by fuzzy consistent judgement matrix,and the relation between the fuzzy consistent judgement matrix denoting the important comparision and the weigtht denoting the level of importance of element. On the basis of the research,the paper gave the principle and procedure of fuzzy analytical hierarchy process.

Promoting the Transition from Implicit to Explicit Understanding: A Training Study of False Belief

Abstract: Ninety-one children aged between 2;10 and 5;0 participated in a training study of false belief. Children were assigned to either an explanation condition, a practice condition or a control condition where children heard two stories unrelated to false belief. Children’s eye movements in anticipation of the protagonist reappearing were monitored at pre-test. Only the explanation condition led to improvements in judgement and justification of a protagonist’s future action based on false belief. Children who looked in anticipation to where the protagonist thought the object was at pre-test were more likely to give a correct judgement at post-test than those who did not. Those children in the explanation group who gave a correct judgement at pre-test were more likely to give an appropriate justification at post-test than those who did not. Three main conclusions are drawn: (1) providing explanation about the underlying principles of a task is more likely to lead to improvements in performance than merely informing children of whether their response is correct; (2) the nature of improvements in performance will depend on the level of knowledge of the child at pre-test; (3) training will only be beneficial for those children who demonstrate evidence of implicit understanding.

Conservation Skills: Judgement, Method and Decision Making

Abstract: Conservation Skills provides an overview of the issues facing conservators of historic and artistic works It not only describes the nature of conservation but also provides an ethical framework to which the conservation of objects can be related Drawing on case studies of well-known objects such as the body of Lindow Man and the Statue of Liberty it addresses the following issues: * perception, judgement and learning * reasons for preserving the past * the nature and history of conservation * conservation ethics * recording, investigating, cleaning objects * stabilisation and restoration * preventive conservation * decision making and responsibilities

Classifying clinical decision making: interpreting nursing intuition, heuristics and medical diagnosis

Abstract: This is the second of two linked papers exploring decision making in nursing. The first paper, 'Classifying clinical decision making: a unifying approach' investigated difficulties with applying a range of decision-making theories to nursing practice. This is due to the diversity of terminology and theoretical concepts used, which militate against nurses being able to compare the outcomes of decisions analysed within different frameworks. It is therefore problematic for nurses to assess how good their decisions are, and where improvements can be made. However, despite the range of nomenclature, it was argued that there are underlying similarities between all theories of decision processes and that these should be exposed through integration within a single explanatory framework. A proposed solution was to use a general model of psychological classification to clarify and compare terms, concepts and processes identified across the different theories. The unifying framework of classification was described and this paper operationalizes it to demonstrate how different approaches to clinical decision making can be re-interpreted as classification behaviour. Particular attention is focused on classification in nursing, and on re-evaluating heuristic reasoning, which has been particularly prone to theoretical and terminological confusion. Demonstrating similarities in how different disciplines make decisions should promote improved multidisciplinary collaboration and a weakening of clinical elitism, thereby enhancing organizational effectiveness in health care and nurses' professional status. This is particularly important as nurses' roles continue to expand to embrace elements of managerial, medical and therapeutic work. Analysing nurses' decisions as classification behaviour will also enhance clinical effectiveness, and assist in making nurses' expertise more visible. In addition, the classification framework explodes the myth that intuition, traditionally associated with nurses' decision making, is less rational and scientific than other approaches.

Know-How and Workplace Practical Judgement

Abstract: In workplace situations of all kinds novices are transformed by experience of practice into highly proficient practitioners. How are we to understand this change which appears to be as much a qualitative one as it is a quantitative one? This paper argues that the available resources for understanding the informal learning that occurs during the course of successful workplace practice are somewhat limited. Theories about know-how are criticised for shedding little light on this topic. The notion of tacit knowledge is also rejected as unhelpful. The development of judgement is proposed as a more promising way to understand the phenomenon. A consideration of four main dimensions of contextuality is used as a lead into an account of eleven key features of workplace practical judgement.

When does explicit justification impair decision making

Abstract: The idea that careful analysis leads to better decisions is pervasive in research on decision making. Intriguingly, results raise the possibility that thinking about reasons for decisions before deciding may degrade decision quality. This paper reports the results of a laboratory study which examined whether task characteristics critically influence the effects of thinking about reasons on decision quality. We found that explicit reasoning degraded judgement quality, objectively measured, on an ‘intuitive’ task. However, we also found that explicit reasoning enhanced performance on an ‘analytic’ task. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Practice‐based Doctorates and Questions of Academic Legitimacy

Abstract: Over the last six years there has been a massive increase in the number of students studying for practice-based doctorates in Art and Design. It is now possible to do a practice-based PhD in over forty departments, although what is expected from doctoral students varies considerably across institutions. In 1997 the United Kingdom Council for Graduate Education (UKCGE) addressed the variance between practice-based doctorates in the report Practice-Based Doctorates in the Creative and Performing Arts and Design. This paper examines the recommendations made by the report and asks to what extent does it acknowledge art as a legitimate research practice within the university. The UKCGE report recommends that all practice-based PhDs have a substantial theoretical and contextualising element that will demonstrate general scholarly requirements and render the artwork accessible to judgement. I argue that this proposal is problematic on several counts; it draws a firm line between theory and practice, places academic research in opposition to practice generally and artwork specifically, maintains the stereotype of art as anti-intellectual and forgets the degree to which theory is itself a practice. In addition it suggests that art practice can only be legitimised as research when it is framed by a conventionally academic enquiry. I suggest that instead of trying to make art practice fit academic regulations it would be more productive to use the practice-based PhDs as a way of re-thinking academic conventions and scholarly requirements.

The Impact of Guanxi on the Ethical Decision-Making Process of Auditors – An Exploratory Study on Chinese CPAs in Hong Kong

Abstract: Using professional accountants as respondents in Hong Kong, this study strives to develop a model to depict the effect of ethical reasoning on the relationships between guanxi and auditors; behaviour in an audit conflict situation. The results of the study found that (1) there is a significant relationship between an auditor's ethical judgement and one's moral cognitive development; (2) there is a relationship between an auditor's ethical judgement and the existence of guanxi; and (3) the impact of guanxi on an auditor's judgement is depending on the level of ethical reasoning.

Clinical Judgement : Evidence in Practice

Abstract: Chapter 1: Judgement and Science Chapter 2: Judgement in the clinic Chapter 3: Humane Judgement Chapter 4: Judgement in public health Chapter 5: Judgement and resource management Chapter6: Educating judgement: the humanities Conclusion: Clinical Judgement References

History: A Very Short Introduction

Abstract: 1. QUESTIONS ABOUT MURDER AND HISTORY 2. THE HISTORY OF HISTORY 3. WHAT REALLY HAPPENED: TRUTH, ARCHIVES, AND THE LOVE OF OLD THINGS 4. ESCAPES FROM THE TOWER 5. CAUSATION AND INTERPRETATIONS 6. TELLING STORIES, TELLING TALES 7. PERIODIZATION AND TIME 8. OBJECTIVITY, TRUTH, AND JUDGEMENT 9. THE ROLE OF THE PAST IN THE PRESENT FURTHER READING INDEX

Measuring Doctors' Self-insight into their Treatment Decisions

Abstract: We report two studies here. Both focus on the nature and measurement of self-knowledge in judgement making. In the first study we asked 32 British family physicians (GPs) to identify their own policy from sets of policies describing their own and their contemporaries' prescription behaviour. They were no better at identifying their own stated policies than the policies we had statistically generated to describe their behaviour. In the second study we measured the information 30 GPs selected while making judgements about prescription. Patterns of information selection were similar to the way the GPs rated the influence of the information but dissimilar to the pattern of information use as measured in a judgement analysis. The pattern of results in both studies is consistent with the possibility that the knowledge GPs have is of the extent to which they attend to information. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The effects of experience and task difficulty on accuracy and confidence assessments of auditors

Abstract: This study extends prior research in psychology and auditing by examining the effects of audit experience and task difficulty on control risk evaluation. It also examines whether the effect of framing is mitigated by the simultaneous presentation of information. Ninety-eight auditors performed a control risk evaluation task and recorded their judgement and their confidence. We find that judgement confidence increases with audit experience and that judgement confidence decreases as perceived task difficulty increases. However, we find no relation between audit experience and judgement accuracy or between perceived task difficulty and judgement accuracy. In addition, we find a significant negative relation between judgement confidence and judgement accuracy, which indicates that the participants’ confidence is not appropriate. As expected, there is no framing effect when information is presented simultaneously.

Levels of the Game

Abstract: Institutionalization of securities markets and the increasingly rich research resources of institutional investors and the sophisticated market intermediaries that supply them with data, information, and judgement have profoundly changed the nature of the investor9s working environment. Winning the “Loser9s Game” is getting harder and harder. The author argues that investing can be “unbundled” into different levels of difficulty and cost. Ironically, cost and success are in conflict. He argues that investment professionals and their clients are least likely to succeed at the most costly level of investing: buying and selling individual securities. Both managers and investors would be wise to refocus on the highest level of investing: determining realistic long–term objectives, formulating realistic policies to achieve their objectives, ad sustaining wise commitments. At this higher level of the game, everyone can be a winner.