Showing papers on "Rural area published in 2008"

The Determinants of Rural Livelihood Diversification in Developing Countries

Abstract: The diversity of rural livelihoods in low income developing countries is receiving increased attention in discussions about rural poverty reduction. This paper explores just one facet of livelihood diversity, namely the reasons for households to adopt multiple livelihood strategies. The distinction is made between diversification of necessity and diversification by choice. Six determinants of diversification are considered in the light of that distinction, and these are seasonality, risk, labour markets, credit markets, asset strategies, and coping strategies. The paper concludes that under the precarious conditions that characterise rural survival in many low income countries, diversification has positive attributes for livelihood security that outweigh negative connotations it may possess. Policy should facilitate rather than inhibit diversity. Diverse rural livelihoods are less vulnerable than undiversified ones.

Biomass fuels and respiratory diseases: a review of the evidence.

Abstract: Globally, about 50% of all households and 90% of rural households use solid fuels (coal and biomass) as the main domestic source of energy, thus exposing approximately 50% of the world population-close to 3 billion people-to the harmful effects of these combustion products. There is strong evidence that acute respiratory infections in children and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in women are associated with indoor biomass smoke. Lung cancer in women has been clearly associated with household coal use. Other conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in men and tuberculosis could be also associated but evidence is scarce. According to estimates of the World Health Organization, more than 1.6 million deaths and over 38.5 million disability-adjusted life-years can be attributable to indoor smoke from solid fuels affecting mainly children and women. Interventions to suppress or reduce indoor exposure include behavior changes, improvements of household ventilation, improvements of stoves, and, outstandingly, transitions to better and cleaner fuels. These changes face personal and local beliefs and economic and sociocultural conditions. In addition, selection of fuels should consider cost, sustainability, and protection of the environment. Consequently, complex solutions need to be locally adapted, and involve the commitment and active participation of governments, scientific societies, nongovernmental organizations, and the general community.

The Role of Food Tourism in Sustaining Regional Identity: A Case Study of Cornwall, South West England

Abstract: This exploratory paper examines the role of food tourism in developing and sustaining regional identities within the context of rural regeneration, agricultural diversification and the creation of closer relationships between production and consumption in the countryside. It focuses on Cornwall, South West England, an area with rural development issues, increasing tourism impacts and contested issues of regional identity. A literature and policy analysis, and in-depth interviews with 12 restaurateurs, were undertaken in four popular tourist locations. Correlation was found between increased levels of food tourism interest and the retention and development of regional identity, the enhancement of environmental awareness and sustainability, an increase in social and cultural benefits celebrating the production of local food and the conservation of traditional heritage, skills and ways of life. The paper draws attention to three issues: the role of food tourism in increasing tourist spending, the potential r...

Summary and statistical report of the 2007 population and housing census

Abstract: This report presents the summary results of the first release of the 2007 Population and Housing Census. The statistical data are compiled and annexed to this report. For detailed information, users are advised to refer to the tables in the Annex. . Table 1 presents regional population by sex and place of residence (urban/rural). Table 2a and Table 2b contain regional population by single age and by age group. Table 3 shows the population of regions, zones and Weredas by urban and rural areas. The total number of households in the conventional households and average household size by region are given in Table 4. Distribution of ethnic groups (nations and nationalities) and religious composition by region are provided in Table 5 and Table 6 respectively. It is important to note that the census results for Afar and Somali Regions in all the tables refer to the counted population as of November 2007. For the rest of the regions, the results refer to counted population as of May 2007.

Effects of Non-Farm Employment on Rural Income Inequality in Developing Countries: an Investment Perspective

Abstract: This paper makes several points based on a review of household survey evidence from Africa, Asia and Latin America. (i) In contrast to conventional wisdom, the evidence is very mixed as to the effect of non-farm employment on rural income inequality. The non-farm employment and microenterprise programmes now in vogue will not necessarily resolve rural income inequality problems and attendant social tensions nor automatically benefit the poor. (ii) Policymakers should be worried by substantial evidence of poor people's inability to overcome important entry barriers to many non-farm activities. (iii) The main determinants of unequal access to non-farm activities are the distribution of capacity to make investments in non-farm assets and the relative scarcity of low capital entry barrier activities. Therefore, it is crucial for public investments and policy to favour an increase in the access of the poor to assets that allow them to overcome non-farm employment entry barriers, (iv) It would be an error to assume that one can address asset-poverty and inequality in the non-farm sector without addressing farm-side problems and vice versa.

The DHS wealth index: Approaches for rural and urban areas

Abstract: The DHS Wealth Index originally was constructed from existing data on household assets, services, and amenities in order to tabulate health, population, nutrition, education, and other indicators according to economic status. The Wealth Index has proved to be one of the most useful background characteristics available from the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data. It is now standard in DHS and UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) final reports and data sets. However, the Index has been criticized as being too urban in its construction and not able to distinguish the poorest of the poor from other poor households. This paper examines the extent of these problems and suggests and evaluates several possible remedies for them. One remedy that has already been taken by the DHS is to include questions in the standard questionnaires that have been specifically designed to ascertain rural stores of wealth and to distinguish among the poor. For example, questions have been added on rural stores of wealth, such as size of landholdings and number of farm animals by type. To better distinguish among the poor, the surveys ask about possession of furniture items, such as tables, chairs, and beds, because the extremely poor may not have such items. The lack of windows and the lack of windows with glass panes may also indicate an extremely poor household. A second remedy that could be applied is the use of urbanand rural-specific indexes, or quintile classifications of a common index. These approaches imply, respectively, the construction of separate indexes for urban and rural areas, or the calculation of wealth quintiles separately by type of area. A third approach would be to more finely divide the national index into deciles (which may distinguish better among the poor). These approaches are applied to data from the 2003 Bolivia DHS and to the 2007 Zambia DHS (in an appendix), and their advantages and drawbacks are discussed in the text. A fourth approach is to construct totally separate indexes for each area and then scale them so that a given score on each index means the same level of wealth. The paper describes two methods of combining separate rural and urban indexes. A method based on regression coefficients is demonstrated using data from the Bolivia 2003 and Zambia 2007 DHS surveys and proves the feasibility of basing urban and rural indexes on differing sets of indicator variables and then scaling these indicators so that a composite index can be calculated. This composite index allows comparability between urban and rural areas.

Neighborhood Socioeconomic Deprivation and Minority Composition Are Associated with Better Potential Spatial Access to the Ground-Truthed Food Environment in a Large Rural Area

Abstract: Little is known about spatial inequalities and potential access to the food environment in rural areas. In this study, we assessed the food environment in a 6-county rural region of Texas (11,567 km2) through ground-truthed methods that included direct observation and on-site Global Positioning System technology to examine the relationship between neighborhood inequalities (e.g., socioeconomic deprivation and minority composition) and network distance from all 101 rural neighborhoods to the nearest food store (FS). Neighborhood deprivation was determined from socioeconomic characteristics using 2000 census block group (CBG) data. Network distances were calculated from the population-weighted center of each CBG to the nearest supermarket, grocery, convenience, and discount store. Multiple regression models examined associations among deprivation, minority composition, population density, and network distance to the nearest FS. The median distance to the nearest supermarket was 14.9 km one way (range 0.12 to 54.0 km). The distance decreased with increasing deprivation, minority composition, and population density. The worst deprived neighborhoods with the greatest minority composition had better potential spatial access to the nearest FS. For >20% of all rural residents, their neighborhoods were at least 17.7 km from the nearest supermarket or full-line grocery or 7.6 km from the nearest convenience store. This makes food shopping a challenge, especially in rural areas that lack public transportation and where many have no vehicular access. Knowledge of potential access to the food environment is essential for combining environmental approaches and health interventions so that families, especially those in rural areas, can make healthier food choices.

The School Food Revolution: Public Food and the Challenge of Sustainable Development

Abstract: School food suddenly finds itself at the forefront of contemporary debates about healthy eating, social inclusion, ecological sustainability and local economic development. All around the world it is becoming clear - to experts, parents, educators, practitioners and policy-makers - that the school food service has the potential to deliver multiple dividends that would significantly advance the sustainable development agenda at global, national and local levels. Drawing on new empirical data collected in urban and rural areas of Europe, North America and Africa, this book offers a timely and original contribution to the school food debate by highlighting the potential of creative public procurement - the power of purchase. The book takes a critical look at the alleged benefits of school food reform, such as lower food miles, the creation of markets for local producers and new food education initiatives that empower consumers by nurturing their capacity to eat healthily. To assess the potential of these claims, the book compares a variety of sites involved in the school food revolution - from rural communities committed to the values of 'the local' to global cities such as London, New York and Rome that feed millions of ethnically diverse young people daily. The book also examines the UN's new school feeding programme - the Home Grown Programme - which sees nutritious food as an end in itself as well as a means to meeting the Millennium Development Goals. Overall, the book examines the theory, policy and practice of public food provisioning, offering a comparative perspective on the design and delivery of sustainable school food systems.

Rural-urban differences in physical activity, physical fitness, and overweight prevalence of children.

Abstract: : Context:The increasing prevalence of overweight in youth has been well chronicled, but less is known about the unique patterns and risks that may exist in rural and urban environments. A better understanding of possible rural–urban differences in physical activity profiles may facilitate the development of more targeted physical activity interventions. Methods: Participants (1,687 boys; 1,729 girls) were recruited from fourth, fifth, and sixth grade classes in schools from urban areas, small cities, and rural areas. Multilevel modeling analysis was used to examine rural–urban differences in physical activity and prevalence of overweight. Physical activity was assessed by self-report and body mass index was calculated from measured height and weight. Findings: Prevalence of overweight was higher among rural children (25%; P < .001) than children from urban areas (19%) and small cities (17%). Urban children were the least active overall (Cohens' d =−0.4), particularly around lunchtime while at school (d =−0.9 to −1.1). Children from small cities reported the highest levels of physical activity. Conclusions: The results of this study suggest there are rural–urban differences in children's prevalence of overweight and physical activity even within a fairly homogenous Midwestern state.

Health System Reform in China 5 China's human resources for health: quantity, quality, and distribution

Abstract: In this paper, we analyse China’s current health workforce in terms of quantity, quality, and distribution. Unlike most countries, China has more doctors than nurses—in 2005, there were 1·9 million licensed doctors and 1·4 million nurses. Doctor density in urban areas was more than twice that in rural areas, with nurse density showing more than a three-fold diff erence. Most of China’s doctors (67·2%) and nurses (97·5%) have been educated up to only junior college or secondary school level. Since 1998 there has been a massive expansion of medical education, with an excess in the production of health workers over absorption into the health workforce. Inter-county inequality in the distribution of both doctors and nurses is very high, with most of this inequality accounted for by within-province inequalities (82% or more) rather than by between-province inequalities. Urban–rural disparities in doctor and nurse density account for about a third of overall inter-county inequality. These inequalities matter greatly with respect to health outcomes across counties, provinces, and strata in China; for instance, a cross-county multiple regression analysis using data from the 2000 census shows that the density of health workers is highly signifi cant in explaining infant mortality.

Prevalence and time trends in obesity among adult West African populations: a meta-analysis.

Abstract: The objective of this study was to determine the distribution of and trends in obesity in adult West African populations. Between February and March 2007, a comprehensive literature search was conducted using four electronic databases. Journal hand searches, citations and bibliographic snowballing of relevant articles were also undertaken. To be included, studies had to be population-based, use well-defined criteria for measuring obesity, present data that allowed calculation of the prevalence of obesity and sample adult participants. Studies retrieved were critically appraised. Meta-analysis was performed using the DerSimonian-Laird random effect model. Twenty-eight studies were included. Thirteen studies were conducted in urban settings, 13 in mixed urban/rural and one in rural setting. Mean body mass index ranged from 20.1 to 27.0 kg(2). Prevalence of obesity in West Africa was estimated at 10.0% (95% CI, 6.0-15.0). Women were more likely to be obese than men, odds ratios 3.16 (95% CI, 2.51-3.98) and 4.79 (95% CI, 3.30-6.95) in urban and rural areas respectively. Urban residents were more likely to be obese than rural residents, odds ratio 2.70 (95% CI, 1.76-4.15). Time trend analyses indicated that prevalence of obesity in urban West Africa more than doubled (114%) over 15 years, accounted for almost entirely in women. Urban residents and women have particularly high risk of overweight/obesity and obesity is rising fast in women. Policymakers, politicians and health promotion experts must urgently help communities control the spread of obesity in West Africa.

The role of mobile phones in sustainable rural poverty reduction

Abstract: Many developing country governments and developing agencies are focusing on extending telecommunications services into rural areas, as they seek to alleviate poverty, encourage economic and social growth, and overcome a perceived 'digital divide'. However, relatively little is known about how rural communities benefit from modern telecommunications services and what impact it is having on their lives and livelihoods. This paper endeavors to redress the balance, by examining the role of mobile telephones in sustainable poverty reduction among the rural poor. In the first section, the authors ask three questions: (a) Why are the rural poor important?; (b) What is information and why is it important?; and (c) Is the mobile telephone the most appropriate delivery mechanism for that information? In the second section, the authors look at the current status of the mobile industry in both the developed and developing world: (a) the authors consider the 'explosive' growth in availability and affordability of mobile phone services, which has been high in the developed world, but is gaining speed in the developing world; and (b) the authors examine the role of the private sector in this impressive growth. In the third section, the authors drill down into the impact of mobile telephony. The authors begin by examining the perceived correlation between GDP per capita and mobile penetration. Then the authors turn their attention to the examination of channels through which mobile phones benefit the rural poor: (a) direct benefits; (b) indirect benefits; and (c) intangible benefits, which contains an overview of hard-to-measure, rarely discussed but relevant, benefits of mobile telephony: namely, disaster relief, dissemination of locally-generated and locally-relevant educational and health information, and social capital or social cohesion. In the fourth section, the authors review several emerging global trends that may change the use and impact of mobile telephony in rural areas. Finally, the fifth section summarizes and interprets the main conclusions.

Insight, part of a Special Feature on The influence of human demography and agriculture on natural systems in the Neotropics Urban Forest and Rural Cities: Multi-sited Households, Consumption Patterns, and Forest Resources in Amazonia

Abstract: In much of the Amazon Basin, approximately 70% of the population lives in urban areas and urbanward migration continues. Based on data collected over more than a decade in two long-settled regions of Amazonia, we find that rural-urban migration in the region is an extended and complex process. Like recent rural-urban migrants worldwide, Amazonian migrants, although they may be counted as urban residents, are often not absent from rural areas but remain members of multi-sited households and continue to participate in rural-urban networks and in rural land-use decisions. Our research indicates that, despite their general poverty, these migrants have affected urban markets for both food and construction materials. We present two cases: that of acai palm fruit in the estuary of the Amazon and of cheap construction timbers in the Peruvian Amazon. We find that many new Amazonian rural-urban migrants have maintained some important rural patterns of both consumption and knowledge. Through their consumer behavior, they are affecting the areal extent of forests; in the two floodplain regions discussed, tree cover is increasing. We also find changes in forest composition, reflecting the persistence of rural consumption patterns in cities resulting in increased demand for and production of acai and cheap timber species.

A longitudinal analysis of the general surgery workforce in the United States, 1981-2005.

Abstract: Hypothesis The overall supply of general surgeons per 100 000 population has declined in the past 2 decades, and small and isolated rural areas of the United States continue to have relatively fewer general surgeons per 100 000 population than urban areas. Design Retrospective longitudinal analysis. Setting Clinically active general surgeons in the United States. Participants The American Medical Association's Physician Masterfiles from 1981, 1991, 2001, and 2005 were used to identify all clinically active general surgeons in the United States. Main Outcome Measures Number of general surgeons per 100 000 population and the age, sex, and locale of these surgeons. Results General surgeon to population ratios declined steadily across the study period, from 7.68 per 100 000 in 1981 to 5.69 per 100 000 in 2005. The overall urban ratio dropped from 8.04 to 5.85 (−27.24%) across the study period, and the overall rural ratio dropped from 6.36 to 5.02 (−21.07%). The average age of rural surgeons increased compared with their urban counterparts, and women were disproportionately concentrated in urban areas. Conclusions The overall number of general surgeons per 100 000 population has declined by 25.91% during the past 25 years. The decline has been most marked in urban areas. However, more remote rural areas continue to have significantly fewer general surgeons per 100 000 population. These findings have implications for training, recruiting, and retaining general surgeons.

Rural geography: globalizing the countryside:

Abstract: for organized sessions on ‘Amenity migration, exurbia, and emerging rural landscapes.’ Series of four organized sessions at the 2006 annual AAG meeting, Chicago. Halfacree, K. 1993: Locality and social representation: space, discourse and alternative defi nitions of the rural. Journal of Rural Studies 9, 23–37. — 2006a: From dropping out to leading on? British counter-cultural back-to-the-land in a changing rurality. Progress in Human Geography 30, 309–36. — 2006b: Rural space: constructing a three-fold architecture. In Cloke, P., Marsden, T. and Mooney, P., editors, Handbook of rural studies, London: Sage,

Comparison of parent-only vs family-based interventions for overweight children in underserved rural settings: outcomes from project STORY.

Abstract: Families from rural areas represent one of the largest medically underserved populations in the country.1 Rural counties have higher rates of poverty,2 greater percentages of patients with chronic diseases,3 and distinct activity-related design features4,5 relative to nonrural areas. These factors make adopting healthier lifestyles more challenging for families in rural communities.6 Not surprisingly, children from rural communities have higher rates of obesity than their nonrural counterparts.7–9 The development of effective interventions for childhood obesity represents a critical public health objective,10,11 especially in underserved settings. Behavioral, family-based (FB), group interventions that include both the child and parent have demonstrated success in producing weight loss in children.12,13 Alternatively, recent studies14,15 suggest that working only with the parent(s) may lead to greater decreases in weight status for overweight children than interventions that include both children and parents. To our knowledge, only 1 study15 has published data comparing FB and parent-only (PO) interventions, with the PO intervention demonstrating a greater decrease in percentage of overweight in children relative to the FB intervention. Exclusively targeting parents in weight management programs for children in rural settings may hold advantages over FB interventions, including the use of fewer resources (eg, number of interventionists, space, materials) to conduct interventions. Most pediatric weight management trials have consisted of efficacy studies conducted with middle-class participants and delivered in “optimal” (ie, academic research) venues rather than “real-world” community settings. Despite their methodologic strengths, efficacy studies16,17 are limited in their ability to estimate the treatment effects that can be expected in community settings. Unfortunately, few generalizable, effective, and sustainable weight management interventions have been translated into practice and, to our knowledge, no published randomized clinical trials address weight management for children in rural settings.18 Venues for establishing health promotion programs for families in rural areas are limited. One option is the Cooperative Extension Service (CES) network. Nationally, the CES is a partnership among the US Department of Agriculture, land-grant universities, and local governments and provides services to residents in virtually every county in the United States. Youth programs delivered at CES offices include nutrition education,19,20 gardening, livestock and farming activities, and outdoor activities. The CES network offers a unique setting in that it provides the infrastructure and stature within rural communities to support preventive services for families. The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the effects of a behavioral FB intervention and a behavioral PO intervention delivered through rural CES offices on children’s weight status.

The Big Dry The link between rural masculinities and poor health outcomes for farming men

Abstract: The long-running Australian drought has had significant economic and environmental consequences, not least its impact on water supplies for major cities. What is less well understood are the social consequences affecting the farm families and communities reliant on agricultural production. In this article we focus on the mental health outcomes for farm men, noting that they are more vulnerable to extreme measures such as suicide. We argue that a dominant form of hegemonic masculinity in rural areas, which has served men well in good times, allowing them power and privilege, is inherently unhealthy in times of significant stress such as the current drought. The stoicism so typical of normative rural masculinity prevents men from seeking help when their health is severely compromised. We argue that attending to the health of rural men during drought requires attention not just to health outcomes but also to hegemonic masculinity.

Urban Forest and Rural Cities: Multi-sited Households, Consumption Patterns, and Forest Resources in Amazonia

Abstract: In much of the Amazon Basin, approximately 70% of the population lives in urban areas and urbanward migration continues. Based on data collected over more than a decade in two long-settled regions of Amazonia, we find that rural–urban migration in the region is an extended and complex process. Like recent rural–urban migrants worldwide, Amazonian migrants, although they may be counted as urban residents, are often not absent from rural areas but remain members of multi-sited households and continue to participate in rural–urban networks and in rural land-use decisions. Our research indicates that, despite their general poverty, these migrants have affected urban markets for both food and construction materials. We present two cases: that of acai palm fruit in the estuary of the Amazon and of cheap construction timbers in the Peruvian Amazon. We find that many new Amazonian rural–urban migrants have maintained some important rural patterns of both consumption and knowledge. Through their consumer behavior, they are affecting the areal extent of forests; in the two floodplain regions discussed, tree cover is increasing. We also find changes in forest composition, reflecting the persistence of rural consumption patterns in cities resulting in increased demand for and production of acai and cheap timber species.

Urban-Rural Differences in Overweight Status and Physical Inactivity among US Children Aged 10-17 Years.

Abstract: : Context: Few studies have examined the prevalence of overweight status and physical inactivity among children and adolescents living in rural America. Purpose: We examined urban and rural differences in the prevalence of overweight status and physical inactivity among US children. Methods: Data were drawn from the 2003 National Survey of Children's Health, restricted to children aged 10-17 (unweighted N = 47,757). Overweight status was defined as the gender- and age-specific body mass index (BMI) values at or above the 95th percentile. Physical inactivity was defined using parentally reported moderate-to-vigorous intensity leisure-time physical activity lasting for at least 20 minutes/d on less than three days in the past week. The 2003 Urban Influence Codes were used to define rurality. Multiple logistic regression models were used to examine urban/rural differences in overweight status and physical inactivity after adjusting for potential confounders. Findings: Overweight status was more prevalent among rural (16.5%) than urban children (14.3%). After adjusting for covariates including physical activity, rural children had higher odds of being overweight than urban children (OR: 1.13; 95% CI: 1.01-1.25). Minorities, children from families with lower socioeconomic status, and children living in the South experienced higher odds of being overweight. More urban children (29.1%) were physically inactive than rural children (25.2%) and this pattern remained after adjusting for covariates (OR: 0.79; 95% CI: 0.73-0.86). Conclusions: The higher prevalence of overweight among rural children, despite modestly higher physical activity levels, calls for further research into effective intervention programs specifically tailored for rural children.