Showing papers on "Similarity (psychology) published in 1993"

Structural Knowledge: Techniques for Representing, Conveying, and Acquiring Structural Knowledge

Abstract: Contents: Part I:Introduction to Structural Knowledge Structural Knowledge: Description, Rationale, and Assumptions Part II:Representing/Assessing Structural Knowledge Eliciting Knowledge Through: Word Association Proximities Similarity Ratings Card Sorts Representing Structural Knowledge Through: Tree Construction Task Dimensional Representations(Cognitive Maps) Link Weighted Network Representations: Pathfinder Nets Tree Representations: Ordered Tree Technique Verbal Tests Part III:Conveying Structural Knowledge Implicit Methods for Conveying Structural Knowledge Through: Content Structures Elaboration Theory Frames & Slots Explicit Methods for Conveying Structural Knowledge Through: Semantic Maps Causal Interaction Maps Concept Maps Graphic Organizers/Structured Overviews Cross Classification Tables Semantic Features Analysis Advance Organizers Part IV:Structural Knowledge Learning Strategies: Pattern Notes Spider Maps Frame Games Networks Node Acquisition and Integration Technique

Metaphor and Thought: Metaphor and theory change: What is “metaphor” a metaphor for?

Abstract: Introduction In the now classic essay “Metaphor” (Black, 1962b), Max Black considers and rejects various formulations of the “substitution view” of metaphor, according to which every metaphorical statement is equivalent to a (perhaps more awkward, or less decorative) literal statement. Black devotes most of his critical attention to a special case of the substitution view, the “comparison view,” according to which a metaphor consists in the presentation of an underlying analogy or similarity. It is clear from Black's discussion that he understands the comparison view as entailing that every metaphorical statement be equivalent to one in which some quite definite respect of similarity or analogy is presented, and that successful communication via metaphor involves the hearer understanding the same respect(s) of similarity or analogy as the speaker. Black argues that, except perhaps in cases of catachresis – the use of metaphor to remedy gaps in vocabulary – the comparison view is inadequate. As an alternative, Black proposed the adoption of an “interaction view” of metaphor. According to this view, metaphors work by applying to the principal (literal) subject of the metaphor a system of “associated implications” characteristic of the metaphorical secondary subject. These implications are typically provided by the received “commonplaces” about the secondary subject. Although Black's position has many facets, it is clear that, at a minimum, it differs from the comparison view in denying that the success of a metaphor rests on its success in conveying to the listener or reader some quite definite respects of similarity or analogy between the principal and secondary subjects: metaphors are, on Black's view, more open-ended (this is not his terminology) than the comparison view would suggest.

Structural bases of interpersonal influence in groups: a longitudinal case study

Abstract: The A. examines the relationship between interpersonal power and influence during the resolution of an issue in an organization. Controlling for elementary bases of power (rewards, coercion, authority, identification, and expertise), he investigates three bases of power that arise from the structure of social networks (cohesion, similarity, and centrality). The analysis of the data on actor's bases of social power, frequency of interpersonal communications, and interpersonal influences indicates that cohesion, similarity, and centrality have significant effects on issue-related influence net of the elementary power bases. The effects of the structural bases are mediated by the frequency of issue-related communication, which primary structural determinant is network cohesion.

Routine Maintenance Behaviors: A Comparison of Relationship Type, Partner Similarity and Sex Differences

Abstract: This study replicates and extends previous research by probing for routine behaviors that maintain relationships. In addition, maintenance behaviors of married vs dating partners are compared, and similarity of relational partners' reports of maintenance behaviors is assessed. Finally, the differences in the use of maintenance behaviors by men and women are examined. Results indicate that many of the behaviors identified in this study are similar to behaviors found in past research on relational maintenance strategies. However, sharing tasks, a behavior only infrequently mentioned in previous research, was the most frequently reported maintenance behavior, indicating that sharing tasks is characteristic of routine, rather than strategic, maintenance behavior. Results also indicate that there is little difference in maintenance behaviors according to relationship type; that relational partners' reports of maintenance behaviors are quite similar; but that there are significant differences in the behaviors l...

The role of similarity in similes and metaphors

Abstract: The chapter by Alan Paivio and Mary Walsh is like a tool kit; it provides the potential for undertaking a serious examination of our problem. The question that now has to be asked is whether it contains the right tools. I suspect that as with most tool kits, some of the tools are useful for the problem at hand and some are not. In this chapter, I shall concentrate on the tool that I believe to be the most important, namely, similarity . I shall also discuss briefly two other issues raised by Paivio and Walsh, namely, integration and relation. Paivio and Walsh argue that the central question surrounding the comprehension (and the production) of metaphors concerns the way in which a novel conception arises from apparently disparate parts. This question, they claim, involves three important concepts, namely those of integration, relation, and similarity. Similarity is involved because the two terms in a metaphor share attributes. Relation is implicated, because a metaphor may take advantage of common relations, and also because of its involvement in integration. Integration is significant because of the emergence of something new, presumably a result of integrating certain aspects of the parts. As I have said, I think that the most important of these three concepts is that of similarity. For that reason, I shall devote most of my attention to the role of similarity in metaphors, and especially in similes.

Characteristic, Beneficial, and Image Attributes in Consumer Judgments of Similarity and Preference

Abstract: This article investigates the assumption that similar products are similarly liked. An examination of previous research reveals a subtle discrepancy—what is important to consumers when judging the similarity of products does not necessarily match what is important to them when evaluating products for purchase. In an empirical study, we examine this discrepancy and focus on the role of different kinds of attributes. We find that beneficial attributes were relatively more important in preference assessments than in similarity judgments. Alternatively, characteristic attributes were relatively less important in preference assessments than in similarity judgments. Unexpectedly, image attributes were relatively less important in preference assessment than in similarity judgments. These results provide insights into why “me too” products may not succeed.

Perceptions of Conflict in the First Year of Marriage: How Important are Similarity and Understanding?:

Abstract: Perceptions of self and spouse play a central role in marital relationships. Using data from 219 newlywed couples, we examined the relative importance (to marital well-being) of partners' similarity and understanding of conflict styles. These data include reports of behaviors of the self and spouse during their most recent disagreement. Behaviors were categorized as either constructive or destructive to resolving the conflict, and data from each category were analyzed separately. Measures of perceptions of similarity based on one spouse's report, actual similarity between spouses' separate reports and spouses' accuracy in reporting (or `understanding' of) each other's behaviors were derived from these reports. Consistent with earlier studies, perceived similarity was shown to be higher than actual similarity and was a stronger positive predictor of marital well-being. This finding highlights the importance of partners believing that they are similar. The strongest predictor of marital well-being for wives...

Representation, Similarity, and the Chorus of Prototypes

Abstract: It is proposed to conceive of representation as an emergent phenomenon that is supervenient on patterns of activity of coarsely tuned and highly redundant feature detectors. The present preliminary study appears to indicate that this concept of representation is computationally viable, and is compatible with psychological and neurobiological data.

Effect of Server Posture on Restaurant Tipping

Abstract: The effect of server posture (standing vs. squatting) on the size of tip left by restaurant customers was examined in two naturalistic experiments. In these studies, squatting down next to the tables increased servers’ tips from those tables. Both the practical implications of this effect and its similarity to other nonverbal effects on tipping are discussed.

Scope marking as indirect WH-dependency

Abstract: In certain languages, scope-marking structures are used to express long-distancewh-dependencies along with or instead of the more familiar extraction structure. The existence of these two strategies raises an interesting question for the mapping between syntactic structure and semantic representation. Should apparent semantic equivalence be taken as a guide and syntactic parallelism posited at an abstract level of syntax? Or should the surface syntactic distinction between them be maintained and an alternative explanation sought for the similarity in meaning? In this paper I show that theoretical as well as empirical considerations argue against the first approach. I present a syntactic analysis of scope-marking structures in which the dependency betweenwh-expressions is indirect (in contrast to extraction structures which encode directwh-dependencies). I draw attention to certain differences between scope marking and extraction structures which show that they are not really equivalent. The interpretive procedure given for indirectwh-dependencies derives the considerable similarity in meaning between the two structures while maintaining the necessary distinctions.

Predicting Clustering From Semantic Structure

Abstract: This study presents a process model for predicting the strength of semantic clustering within homogeneous semantic domains. The key element of the model is the assumption that clustering between adjacent items in recall is a function of their semantic similarity defined by proximity in a multidimensional space. Data from 17 word lists drawn from various homogeneous semantic domains were collected by a method that simultaneously provides interitem proximity data for similarity scaling and creates a memory list for later recall. Wide variation in the strength of semantic clustering was observed among the 17 word lists. Subjects' clustering performance was in close correspondence to predictions derived from the process model. Moreover, the degree of observed and simulated clustering across lists was strongly associated with distributional features of the semantic structure of the word lists.

Learning and connectionist representations

Abstract: This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction: Representational Tools In Connectionist Networks, Distributed Versus Localist Representations, Learning Representations In Contcectionist Networks, Autoencoders, Representing Semantic Networks In Connectionist Systems, Connectionist Representations And Human Judgments Of Similarity, Conclusion, Note, References

Part—whole perception in early infancy: Evidence for perceptual grouping produced by lightness similarity

Abstract: Four experiments using the familiarization-novelty preference procedure were conducted to determine whether 3-month-old infants can organize visual pattern information in a manner predicted by the Gestalt principle of lightness similarity. The combined results of Experiments 1 through 3 suggest that infants were able to group individual elements into larger perceptual units on the basis of lightness similarity. The combined results of Experiments 2 and 4 suggest that constituent elements actually retain an independent psychological existence within organized wholes and may be processed more efficiently than the elements of disorganized wholes. The implications of all of these results for models of part—whole perception are discussed.

Why Do We Diagnose Different Types of Eating Disorder? Arguments for a Change in Research and Clinical Practice

Abstract: It is argued that the diagnosis of different types of eating disorders lacks either scientific validity or clinical utility, and that the forthcoming elaboration of diagnostic schemes (DSM-IV) is unlikely to improve matters. The central problem with the diagnosiscentred model of the eating disorders seems to be that it is based on an inappropriate model of clinical practice, focusing on syndromes rather than symptoms. However, it would be equally invalid to assume that there is little or no similarity across eatingdisorder sufferers, as suggested by an individual-centred model. Our understanding of the psychopathology and treatment of the eating disorders would benefit from employing a more clinically-appropriate model of practice—the ‘scientist practitioner’ model. Discarding specific diagnoses and using this model would help to make clinical practice and research in the eating disorders more mutually informative.

Cognitive representations of functional interactions with objects.

Abstract: Two studies addressed people’s knowledge about the movements underlying functional interactions with objects, when the interactions were described by simple verbal labels expressing environmental goals. In Experiment 1, subjects rated each action with respect to six dimensions: which portion of the limb moved, distance moved, forcefulness, effectors involved, size of the contact surface, and resemblance to grasp. Ratings were systematic and fell on two distinct underlying factors related to limb movement and effector (usually the hand) configuration. In Experiment 2, subjects sorted a subset of the actions by similarity of movement. Clustering and multidimensional scaling solutions indicated that the six initial dimensions contributed to similarity judgments, along with additional parameters. The results support the existence of cognitively accessible, but still relatively specific, representations of functional actions, with potential implications for motor and memory performance.

Language, thought, and representation

Abstract: Language and Thought. The Representation of Knowledge. Syntactic Processing. The Comprehension of Meaning. The Comprehension of Texts. Conversation and Discourse. Deductive Reasoning. Concepts: Features, Similarity and Theories. Problem Solving. Expertise, Knowledge and Creativity. Hypothesis Testing, Judgment and Choice. Language, Thought and Representation. References. Index.

Similarity- and Nonsimilarity-Based Conceptualization in Children and Pigeons

Abstract: Authors including Lea (1984) have recently argued that true conceptual behavior is not based solely on perceptual similarity. We have developed a method for assessing nonsimilarity-based conceptualization in children that parallels an effective method for pigeons. This method has provided evidence that both species form classes of functionally equivalent, but perceptually different stimuli. Children and pigeons are thus capable of similarity-based and nonsimilarity-based conceptualization; in the former case differential reinforcement may be said to disclose preexisting concepts, whereas in the latter it may be said to produce new ones. The similarity of pigeons’ and children’s categorization behavior suggests that linguistic ability is not necessary for conceptualization.

Fuzzy reasoning approach to similarity evaluation in image analysis

Abstract: In image analysis, the concept of similarity has been widely explored and various measures of similarity, or of distance, have been proposed that yield a quantitative evaluation. There are cases, however, in which the evaluation of similarity should reproduce the judgment of a human observer based mainly on qualitative and, possibly, subjective appraisal of perceptual features. This process is best modeled as a cognitive process based on knowledge structures and inference strategies, able to incorporate the human reasoning mechanisms and to handle their inherent uncertainties. This articlea proposes a general strategy for similarity evaluation in image analysis considered as a cognitive process. A salient aspect is the use of fuzzy logic propositions to represent knowledge structures, and fuzzy reasoning to model inference mechanisms. Specific similarity evaluation procedures are presented that demonstrate how the same general strategy can be applied to different image analysis problems. © 1993 John Wily & Sons, Inc.

Effects of information format and similarity among alternatives on consumer choice processes

Abstract: This study explores how similarity among alternatives and a new information format, branching, affect consumer choice processes. A branching format organizes real, physically present objects by attribute levels. Thirty-six female consumers made six choices from sets of products in a laboratory setting and provided concurrent verbal protocols. Compared to a brand format, a branching format elicited fewer comparisons, had no effect on cognitive effort other than comparisons, and had no effect on intention to choose the best. Compared to the similar set, the dissimilar set elicited more comparisons, lower levels of other measures of cognitive effort, and less intention to choose the best. These effects of similarity and information format were consistent across the two product classes tested. However, the effects of information format and similarity on comparisons differed from their effects on other measures of cognitive effort.

Understanding mouthfeel attributes: a multidimensional scaling approach

Abstract: Multidimensional scaling (MDS) was used to study qualitative relationships among mouthfeel attributes encountered in oral healthcare products. Similarity estimates were obtained from a rapid sorting task and from pairwise similarity ratings. Configurations were interpreted as suggesting four groupings of oral sensations: numbing, astringency, pain and taste. The pain-associated sensations were further differentiated into thermally related sensations and chemically related sensations in some configurations. Two-dimensional solutions from the sorting task and from group-averaged similarity ratings were similar. Individual differences scaling solutions, however, showed unacceptably high stress in two dimensions, suggesting additional nuances in meaning to individual panelists that were not captured by group-averaged data or by sorting data.

Information load, cost/benefit assessment and decision strategy variability

Abstract: The effect of four potential information load-producing variables on decision strategies and decision time and accuracy was examined. These variables included two task-effects, the number of alternatives and attributes, and two context effects, the variability of information on the attributes and alternative similarity. Number of alternatives had the most impact on decision strategies, which were determined via protocols collected during a decision task. The four loadproducing variables all had a significant effect on decision time, with the task-effect variables having the greatest influence. Of the two load-producing variables that showed a significant relationship with decision accuracy, alternative similarity had the most impact.

When analogy is perceived as such

Abstract: Analogies play a significant role in the development and acquisition of scientific concepts and ideas. A critical question is: What causes people to perceive situations as analogical? In an attempt to refer to this central issue, we chose to examine situations that are not considered analogical from the scientific point of view, but have similar perceptual properties and might thus be perceived as analogical by students. Students in the 7th–12th grades were presented with problems related to (a) successive division of physical and geometrical objects, and (b) comparison problems related to physical and geometrical objects. Our data suggest that salient external features of the problems (e.g., similar structure, similar process, and figural similarity), as well as factors related to the solver (e.g., age and instruction) largely influence students' responses to the problems. The theoretical framework, however, is not the most influential factor in determining students' responses to the problems.

The Concept of Same

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter argues that similarity is psychologically complex and composed of a diverse set of processes. The mutual interactions and developmental dependencies of these processes give rise to a creative system of perceptual comparison and a unitary concept of same that transcends specific perceptual details. These insights stem directly from research on the development of similarity and an effort to build a connectionist model of developmental growth in similarity. Discussions of four difficult problems for a psychological theory of similarity are provided. These four problems-a unitary meaning of same , the dynamic nature of perceptual similarity, the multiple levels and kinds of candidate features and dimensions, and the mechanisms through which aspects of perceptual information differentially contribute to judgments of sameness-show that whatever the psychological nature of similarity, it is not simple. The philosophers have good reasons to worry. Psychology, however, requires neither worry nor the dismissal of similarity as too difficult a problem. It also requires an open-minded respect for the data and an explanation of the mechanisms that cause perceptual similarity to be what it is.

Children's gender- and age-based categorization in similarity and induction tasks

Abstract: The present studies examined children's and adults' preferences for gender- or age-based categorization using similarity and inductive inference tasks. Four-year-olds, 6-year-olds, and adults looked at pictures of people and decided which of two was more like a target (similarity condition) or which shared a novel age- or gender-related property with the target (inference condition). Age or gender-based matches were possible. The results are consistent with previous findings that gender-based classification decreases with age. However, they also demonstrate that children use gender more for judging similarity than for making inferences about novel properties. Distinct patterns emerge from the two tasks: 6-year-olds and adults in both conditions categorize more by age than gender; 4-year-olds categorize by gender more than age in the similarity task, but by age more in the induction task. Only adults differentiated by property in the inference condition. These findings suggest that the salience of gender categories cannot entirely be attributed to their inductive potential. Gender has a salience beyond what would be predicted by its power for directing novel generalizations.

Citation Analysis Mapping of Journals in Applied and Clinical Psychology

Abstract: This paper uses a method of citation analysis to establish the importance ranking and relative location of 23 major journals in the field of applied and clinical psychology and related disciplines. The asymmetric citations are modelled as being the product of the cited journals “importance,” the citing journal's “receptivity,“and the “similarity” between the two journals. A maximum likelihood loglinear fit to this model is obtained. Multidimensional scaling of the derived similarities matrix provides an interpretable map of the journals’ relative configuration. The changes in relative importance of the journals are reported for the years 1981 to 1988, together with maps of the journals for the periods 1981 to 1984 and 1985 to 1988. The results show a central core of general psychology journals, surrounded by three major groupings of applied psychology journals.

Explanation-Based Similarity: A Unifying Approach for Integrating Domain Knowledge into Case-Based Reasoning for Diagnosis and Planning Tasks

Abstract: Case-based problem solving can be significantly improved by applying domain knowledge (in opposition to problem solving knowledge), which can be acquired with reasonable effort, to derive explanations of the correctness of a case. Such explanations, constructed on several levels of abstraction, can be employed as the basis for similarity assessment as well as for adaptation by solution refinement. The general approach for explanation-based similarity can be applied to different real world problem solving tasks such as diagnosis and planning in technical areas. This paper presents the general idea as well as the two specific, completely implemented realizations for a diagnosis and a planning task.