Showing papers on "Written language published in 2019"

The Representation of Semantic Information Across Human Cerebral Cortex During Listening Versus Reading Is Invariant to Stimulus Modality.

Abstract: An integral part of human language is the capacity to extract meaning from spoken and written words, but the precise relationship between brain representations of information perceived by listening versus reading is unclear. Prior neuroimaging studies have shown that semantic information in spoken language is represented in multiple regions in the human cerebral cortex, while amodal semantic information appears to be represented in a few broad brain regions. However, previous studies were too insensitive to determine whether semantic representations were shared at a fine level of detail rather than merely at a coarse scale. We used fMRI to record brain activity in two separate experiments while participants listened to or read several hours of the same narrative stories, and then created voxelwise encoding models to characterize semantic selectivity in each voxel and in each individual participant. We find that semantic tuning during listening and reading are highly correlated in most semantically selective regions of cortex, and models estimated using one modality accurately predict voxel responses in the other modality. These results suggest that the representation of language semantics is independent of the sensory modality through which the semantic information is received.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Humans can comprehend the meaning of words from both spoken and written language. It is therefore important to understand the relationship between the brain representations of spoken or written text. Here, we show that although the representation of semantic information in the human brain is quite complex, the semantic representations evoked by listening versus reading are almost identical. These results suggest that the representation of language semantics is independent of the sensory modality through which the semantic information is received.

What Kind of Language Is Hard to Language-Model?

Abstract: How language-agnostic are current state-of-the-art NLP tools? Are there some types of language that are easier to model with current methods? In prior work (Cotterell et al., 2018) we attempted to address this question for language modeling, and observed that recurrent neural network language models do not perform equally well over all the high-resource European languages found in the Europarl corpus. We speculated that inflectional morphology may be the primary culprit for the discrepancy. In this paper, we extend these earlier experiments to cover 69 languages from 13 language families using a multilingual Bible corpus. Methodologically, we introduce a new paired-sample multiplicative mixed-effects model to obtain language difficulty coefficients from at-least-pairwise parallel corpora. In other words, the model is aware of inter-sentence variation and can handle missing data. Exploiting this model, we show that “translationese” is not any easier to model than natively written language in a fair comparison. Trying to answer the question of what features difficult languages have in common, we try and fail to reproduce our earlier (Cotterell et al., 2018) observation about morphological complexity and instead reveal far simpler statistics of the data that seem to drive complexity in a much larger sample.

Teacher Written Corrective Feedback: Less Is More.

Abstract: In different parts of the world second language (L2) teachers devote a massive amount of time to giving feedback on grammatical errors in student writing. Such written corrective feedback, which is unfocused and comprehensive, is fraught with problems for both teachers and students. Nonetheless, it remains a prevalent practice in many L2 contexts. In this position paper, I argue that more written corrective feedback is not better, but instead less is more. After presenting the problems emanating from comprehensive written corrective feedback, I argue for a focused approach to written corrective feedback and examine its benefits for teachers and students. Through discussing five impediments to the implementation of focused written corrective feedback, I scrutinize and refute the counter-claims, and bolster my overall argument in support of focused written corrective feedback. I conclude the position paper with recommendations for action for teachers, teacher educators and researchers.

The cognitive foundations of learning to read: a framework for preventing and remediating reading difficulties

Abstract: This article presents an overview of a conceptual framework designed to help reading professionals better understand what their students are facing as they learn to read in alphabetic writing syste...

Learning to read in Chinese: Evidence for reciprocal relationships between word reading and oral language skills.

Abstract: This study investigates the longitudinal predictors of the development of Chinese word reading skills and potential bidirectional relationships between Chinese word reading and oral language skills We examine, in a 2-year longitudinal study, a wide range of theoretically important predictors (phonological awareness, tone awareness, morphological awareness, visual skills, rapid automatized naming, Pinyin knowledge, and vocabulary knowledge) of reading in 143 primary-school children living in mainland China Initial levels of reading were predicted by vocabulary knowledge, phonological awareness, and visual discrimination skills Only initial reading levels predicted growth in reading Initial reading also predicted growth in vocabulary knowledge and morphological construction This pattern demonstrates that the early stages of learning to read in Chinese places demands on semantic (vocabulary) and visual skills in addition to phonological skills Furthermore, early levels of word reading predict the growth of vocabulary knowledge and morphological awareness suggesting that the development of these oral language skills is facilitated by learning to read

Spontaneous conversational speech synthesis from found data

Abstract: Synthesising spontaneous speech is a difficult task due to disfluencies, high variability and syntactic conventions different from those of written language. Using found data, as opposed to lab-rec ...

Should We Listen or Read? Modality Effects in Implicit and Explicit Knowledge

Abstract: We examined the role of modality in learning second language (L2) grammar and forming implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) knowledge. To this end, we isolated the effects of the physical medium of input (i.e., aural or visual) from those of the presentation method (i.e., word-by-word or simultaneous). We also explored the role of test modality in L2 performance, by including L2 knowledge tests in both aural and visual modes. Native English speakers engaged in meaning-focused integrated practice of 3 German syntactic rules. In Experiment 1, learners were given aural or visual word-by-word (rapid serial visual presentation; RSVP) input and in Experiment 2, they were given aural or natural written input. We found evidence of learning across all 4 groups, but different types of resultant knowledge. In particular, learners gained explicit knowledge in all input modalities, yet only those trained with natural written input also developed robust implicit knowledge. We conclude that the permanence of visual input may be a critical advantage for beginning learners to develop implicit knowledge of word order rules. Support in the form of written materials can ease the cognitive burden on beginning learners, with better outcomes as a result.

Understanding spoken language through TalkBank

Abstract: Ongoing advances in computer technology have opened up a deluge of new datasets for understanding human behavior (Goldstone & Lupyan, 2016). Many of these datasets provide information on the use of written language. However, data on naturally occurring spoken-language conversations are much more difficult to obtain. A major exception to this is the TalkBank system, which provides online multimedia data for 14 types of spoken-language data: language in aphasia, child language, stuttering, child phonology, autism spectrum disorder, bilingualism, Conversation Analysis, classroom discourse, dementia, right hemisphere damage, Danish conversation, second language learning, traumatic brain injury, and daylong recordings in the home. The present report reviews these resources and describes the ways they are being used to further our understanding of human language and communication.

Adolescents’ production of complex syntax in spoken and written expository and persuasive genres

Abstract: Analysing spoken and written language samples across different genres provides speech-language pathologists (SLPs) and educators with information about adolescents’ production of complex syntax, an...

Examining the Relations of the Home Literacy Environments of Families of Low SES with Children's Early Literacy Skills.

Abstract: This study examined variability of the home literacy environment (HLE) using multiple measures among families of low SES. The relations of the measures to each other and to children’s early oral la...

The impact of video and written feedback on student preferences of English speaking practice

Abstract: This study examined the differences in perceptions of the value of feedback for improving English speaking performance between students who received video feedback and those who received written feedback and their preferences for written or video feedback. A total of 43 English as a foreign language students participated in this study to produce a video clip to which their peers responded with either written or video feedback. The collected data included (a) students’ video clips before and after receiving peer feedback, (b) the video and written feedback they received, and (c) a survey which the students completed after receiving video or written feedback to examine their own English speaking performance in terms of pronunciation, intonation, fluency, grammar, and word usage. The findings showed that both written and video feedback was useful for English speaking skill development. Written feedback helped the students learn grammar rules and word usage to achieve greater linguistic accuracy in their English speaking performance. Video feedback helped students improve their intonation. However, neither video feedback nor written feedback could help them significantly improve their pronunciation and fluency. The students also preferred written over video feedback due to its efficiency and clarity.

How Recorded Audio-Visual Feedback Can Improve Academic Language Support.

Abstract: Providing effective, high quality feedback that students engage with remains an important issue in higher education today, particularly in the context of academic language support where feedback helps socialise students to academic writing practices. Technology-enhanced feedback, such as audio and video feedback, is becoming more widely used, and as such, it is important to evaluate whether these methods help students engage with the feedback more successfully than conventional methods. While previous research has explored students’ perceptions of audio-visual feedback, this paper seeks to fill a gap in the literature by examining the impact of the audio-visual mode on undergraduate students’ engagement with feedback compared to written-only feedback. Evidence from an analysis of feedback comments (n = 1040) and corresponding revisions as well as interviews (n = 3) is used to draw conclusions about the value of providing audio-visual feedback to help students revise their writing more successfully. In line with multimedia learning theory (Mayer 2009), it is argued that the multimodal format, conversational tone, verbal explanations and personalised feel of audio-visual feedback allows for a more successful engagement with the feedback, particularly for students with a lower level of English language proficiency.

Processing of texts and videos: A strategy‐focused analysis

Abstract: 268 © 2018 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Abstract This study examined strategies used across two modalities of information presentation. Students were presented with two sources on endangered species, either as two texts or two videos. Then, participants were asked to annotate the two sources either using the track changes function in Microsoft Word, for the text condition, or using the VideoAnt, video annotation platform, for the video condition. Students' annotations were coded for the strategies evidenced. More strategies were reported in association with the text condition and a greater number of higher‐level strategies and emphasis‐related strategies were reported. Moreover, students were found to report consistent strategies when processing two different sources, on two different topics, and were found to report strategies disproportionately early during processing, particularly for the video condition.

EPS mid-career prize lecture 2017: Writing systems, reading, and language.

Abstract: Skilled reading reflects an accumulation of experience with written language. Written language is typically viewed as an expression of spoken language, and this perspective has motivated approaches to understanding reading and reading acquisition. However, in this article, I develop the proposal that written language has diverged from spoken language in important ways that maximise the transmission of meaningful information, and that this divergence has been central to the development of rapid, skilled reading. I use English as an example to show that weaknesses in the relationship between spelling and sound can give rise to strong regularities between spelling and meaning that are critical for the rapid analysis of printed words. I conclude by arguing that the nature of the reading system is a reflection of the writing system and that a deep understanding of reading can be obtained only through a deep understanding of written language.

Relationships between Oral and Written Language

Abstract: Research and clinical studies have identified many relationships between various oral language processes and written language. This article provides an overview of findings regarding auditory recep...

The effectiveness of comprehensive corrective feedback-direct and indirect- on EFL learners' language accuracy, structural complexity and lexical diversity

Abstract: This study investigates the effectiveness of direct and indirect written corrective feedback in improving EFL learners' written language accuracy, complexity and lexical diversity. It also examines the students' strategies in dealing with feedback. It explores students' experiences and students' attitudes towards written corrective feedback. It identifies the factors that affect learners' responses to written corrective feedback. These objectives are achieved by conducting a quasi-experiment followed by students' interviews and case studies. The results reveal that the effectiveness of corrective feedback varies according to its type and the error type over time. Direct feedback is more effective in improving learners' overall language accuracy, both during revision and in subsequent writing. This finding is attributable to the fact that the participants preferred to have direct corrective feedback, as it is easy to understand and less time consuming when applying it. On the other hand, indirect corrective feedback effectively improves learners' overall accuracy in new written texts. This can be related to the fact that some learners prefer indirect corrective feedback because they believe that indirect correction encourages them to search for the correct forms to their errors and assists them to recognise the errors nature as well as remembering them and not repeating them in their subsequent writing. In addition, this study investigates whether the direct and indirect corrective feedback have different value for grammatical and non-grammatical errors. Results showed that both direct and indirect corrective feedback are beneficial in developing learners' grammatical and non-grammatical accuracy. Moreover, neither direct nor indirect corrective feedback resulted in simplified writing. The findings also revealed that learners value and appreciate to receive corrective feedback on their errors in their writing. They also prefer to have explicit corrections on all their errors (comprehensive CF). There are some difficulties that learners faced when processing feedback such as the teacher's hand writing and the time allocated for revision. In order to overcome these challenges, learners use some strategies, which may include asking for help from their teacher, revising their work carefully and using a grammar book or dictionary. The findings from this study imply that comprehensive corrective feedback- direct and indirect- have shown to be valuable practice in improving EFL learners’ accuracy and its effectiveness is durable.

The effects of symmetric and asymmetric social networks on second language communication

Abstract: This study investigated the effects of Facebook and Twitter on foreign language (Chinese) learners’ written production in both short- (10 days) and long-term (50 days) pseudo-experimental settings....

Written languaging with indirect feedback in writing revision: is feedback always effective?

Abstract: Recent studies have shown that languaging contributes to second language skill development. Feedback is often used in combination with languaging as a prompt of verbalization during writing...

To See or Not to See: How Does Seeing Spellings Support Vocabulary Learning?

Abstract: Purpose The aim of this study was to determine when, why, and how the presence of a word's written form during instruction aids vocabulary learning (a process known as orthographic facilitation). Method A systematic review of the research on orthographic facilitation was carried out. PsycInfo, Web of Science, ProQuest, and OpenGrey databases were searched. The search returned 3,529 results, and 23 of these met inclusion criteria. Studies were included in the review if they were written in English, published in a peer-reviewed journal, and compared vocabulary learning outcomes when words were taught with and without their written forms. Conclusions There is strong evidence that the presence of a word's written form leads to improved learning of its spelling and spoken form. There is also some evidence that it may lead to better learning of a word's meaning. A small number of studies have also shown that the presence of a word's written form benefits vocabulary learning in children with developmental language disorder, autism, Down syndrome, and reading difficulties. However, further research into the effects of orthographic facilitation in special populations is needed. In particular, ecologically valid experiments in clinical and educational settings are required in order to better understand how exposure to a word's written form can aid naturalistic vocabulary learning.

The evaluation of word-learning abilities in people with developmental language disorder: a scoping review.

Abstract: Background The ability to learn new words is critical in the development of oral and written language, and significantly impacts engagement in social, academic and vocational situations. Many studies have evaluated the word-learning process in people with developmental language disorder (DLD). However, methodologies for assessment are heterogeneous, creating difficulties in synthesizing findings and identifying gaps in the knowledge base. Aims To scope systematically the literature and identify key methodological parameters considered in evaluations of word learning in people with DLD; and to identify gaps in the literature to guide further research in this area. Methods & procedures Twelve databases were searched and a total of 70 studies that met eligibility criteria were identified. The studies were evaluated according to key parameters that researchers varied in their word-learning methodologies. Main contribution Most research has focused on word learning in the oral modality, and specifically in children with DLD. Fewer studies have explored word learning in adults and adolescents with DLD, and in the written modality. Depending on the research question and theoretical perspective driving the investigation, methodologies for assessing word learning considered a range of parameters, including words being learned, learning context and cues to support learning in the tasks. Conclusions & implications This review aggregates a variety of methods used previously to assess word learning. Findings highlight the need for further research to explore areas such as: the learning of varied word types (e.g., adjectives and adverbs); learning in the written modality; and word learning (both oral and written) in adolescents and adults with DLD.

ELL’s science meaning making in multimodal inquiry: a case-study in a Hong Kong bilingual school

Abstract: This paper reports on a multimodal teaching approach delivered to grade 5 elementary students in a bilingual school in Hong Kong, as part of a larger research study aimed at supporting English Language Learners (ELLs) in science class. As language demands of reading, writing and talking science place additional challenges on ELLs, there is much research interest in exploring the use of multiple modes of communication beyond the dominant use of verbal and written language. Research has shown that students develop a better scientific understanding of natural phenomena by using and alternating between a variety of representations. Yet, questions remain as to what meanings ELLs make during a multimodal discourse and, in turn, how such discourse provides support to ELLs in learning science. Drawing on social semiotics, which theorizes language as a meaning making resource comprising a range of modes (e.g. gestures and diagrams), we used a case-study approach to examine how a multimodal instructional approach provided 10 students with multiple avenues to make sense of science learning. Video recordings (capturing gestures, speech and model manipulation) and student works (drawing and writing) were collected during nine inquiry science lessons, which encompassed biology, physics and chemistry science units. Multimodal transcription allowed discourse to be analysed at a fine-grain level which, together with analysis of student works, indicated that the multimodal instructional approach provided the necessary inquiry opportunities and variety of language experiences for ELLs to build science understandings. Analysis also revealed how the affordances of modes attributed to the meaning making potentials for the ELLs and how they provided alternate communication avenues in which new meanings could be made. The findings from this study have implications for ELLs learning science within the growing multilingual Asia-Pacific region.

Spelling in Deaf, Hard of Hearing and Hearing Children With Sign Language Knowledge.

Abstract: What do spelling errors look like in children with sign language knowledge but with variation in hearing background, and what strategies do these children rely on when they learn how to spell in written language? Earlier research suggests that the spelling of children with hearing loss is different, because of their lack of hearing, which requires them to rely on other strategies. In this study, we examine whether, and how, different variables such as hearing degree, sign language knowledge and bilingualism may affect the spelling strategies of children with Swedish sign language, Svenskt teckensprak, (STS) knowledge, and whether these variables can be mirrored in these children's spelling. The spelling process of nineteen children with STS knowledge (mean age: 10.9) with different hearing degrees, born into deaf families, is described and compared with a group of fourteen hearing children without STS knowledge (mean age: 10.9). Keystroke logging was used to investigate the participants' writing process. The spelling behavior of the children was further analyzed and categorized into different spelling error categories. The results indicate that many children showed exceptionally few spelling errors compared to earlier studies, that may derive from their early exposure of STS, enabling them to use the fingerspelling strategy. All of the children also demonstrated similar typing skills. The deaf children showed a tendency to rely on a visual strategy during spelling, which may result in incorrect, but visually similar, words, i.e., a type of spelling errors not found in texts by hearing children with STS knowledge. The deaf children also showed direct transfer from STS in their spelling. It was found that hard-of-hearing children together with hearing children of deaf adults (CODAs), both with STS knowledge, used a sounding strategy, rather than a visual strategy. Overall, this study suggests that the ability to hear and to use sign language, together and respectively, play a significant role for the spelling patterns and spelling strategies used by the children with and without hearing loss.

Oral and written language abilities in young Spanish/English bilinguals:

Abstract: Purpose:The purpose of this study was to compare oral and written language abilities in English and Spanish of young bilinguals residing in the USA.Methodology:Sixty-two participants (mean age = 23...

Case studies comparing learning profiles and response to instruction in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Oral and Written Language Learning Disability at transition to high school.

Abstract: This study investigated literacy learning in students with specific kinds of language challenges at a specific stage of schooling—transition to high school—when the language requirements of the curriculum can be especially challenging. For this exploratory research, a case study approach was adopted that compared 2 adolescent boys both with language learning problems but with 2 contrasting disabilities—autism spectrum disorder (ASD) versus oral and written language learning disability (OWL LD)—just before entry to ninth grade. Three research aims compared participants on (a) learning profiles assessed via a comprehensive psychoeducational assessment battery, (b) change in their learning profiles based on response to instruction to a computerized intervention, and (c) change in their personal narrative compositions and use of taught translation strategies collected during 6 lessons of the computerized intervention. Results indicated that participants demonstrated variable psychoeducational profiles and response to instruction that highlighted similar yet distinct patterns of strengths and weaknesses. Personal narrative writing samples showed that participants demonstrated distinct challenges, but only the participant with ASD showed no response to instruction and produced predominantly off-topic text. Results are discussed in reference to educational applications and future research design implications to understand the writing challenges experienced by children with ASD in reference to children with OWL LD or other specific learning disabilities.