Showing papers in "Academy of Management Review in 1986"
TL;DR: In this article, three attributes that a firm's culture must have to generate sustained competitive advantages are isolated, and the normative implications of the analysis are discussed, and it is shown that firms that do not have these attributes can engage in activities that will modify their cultures and generate sustained superior financial performance because their modified cultures typically will be neither rare nor imperfectly imitable.
Abstract: Three attributes that a firm's culture must have to generate sustained competitive advantages are isolated. Previous findings suggest that the cultures of some firms have these attributes; thus, these cultures are a source of such advantages. The normative implications of the analysis are discussed. Firms that do not have the required cultures cannot engage in activities that will modify their cultures and generate sustained superior financial performance because their modified cultures typically will be neither rare nor imperfectly imitable. Firms that have cultures with the required attributes can obtain sustained superior financial performance from their cultures.
3,653 citations
TL;DR: In this article, an interactionist model of ethical decision making in organizations is proposed, which combines individual variables (moral development, etc.) with situational variables to explain and predict the ethical decision-making behavior of individuals in organizations.
Abstract: An interactionist model of ethical decision making in organizations is proposed. The model combines individual variables (moral development, etc.) with situational variables to explain and predict the ethical decision-making behavior of individuals in organizations. A major component of the model is based on Kohlberg's cognitive moral development model which provides the construct definition, measurement tools, and theory base to guide future business ethics research. Research propositions are offered and practical implications are discussed.
3,102 citations
TL;DR: The construct of prosocial organizational behavior is defined and 13 specific forms are described in this article, which vary according to whether they are functional or dysfunctional for organizational effectiveness, prescribed or not prescribed as part of one's organizational role, and directed toward an individual or organizational target.
Abstract: The construct of prosocial organizational behavior is defined and 13 specific forms are described. They vary according to whether they are functional or dysfunctional for organizational effectiveness, prescribed or not prescribed as part of one's organizational role, and directed toward an individual or organizational target. Potential predictors and determinants drawn from the social psychological literature suggest an agenda for research in organizational settings.
1,832 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a three dimensional conceptualization of the leader-member exchange construct is proposed and a model of the Leader Member Exchange developmental process is presented, which is based on a three-dimensional model of leader exchange.
Abstract: Following a review of literature on the leader-member exchange model of leadership, the model's methodological and theoretical problems are discussed. First, it is argued that leader-member exchange is a multidimensional construct and should be measured accordingly. Second, it is noted that the leader-member exchange developmental process has not been fully explicated. In addressing these problems, a three dimensional conceptualization of the leader-member exchange construct is proposed and a model of the leader-member exchange developmental process is presented.
1,713 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used meta-analytic techniques to review studies of employee turnover and found that almost all of the 26 variables studied relate to turnover, including population, nationality, and industry.
Abstract: Studies of employee turnover are reviewed using meta-analytic techniques. The findings indicate that almost all of the 26 variables studied relate to turnover. The findings also indicate that study variables including population, nationality, and industry moderate relationships between many of the variables and turnover. It is suggested that future research on employee turnover: (1) report study variables, (2) continue model testing rather than simply correlating variables with turnover, and (3) incorporate study variables into future models.
1,692 citations
TL;DR: This paper integrated important motivational and situational factors from organizational behavior theory and research into a model which describes how trainees' attributes and attitudes may influence the effectiveness of training. But they focused on the level of ability necessary to learn program content.
Abstract: Studies of the influence of trainees' characteristics on training effectiveness have focused on the level of ability necessary to learn program content. Motivational and environmental influences of training effectiveness have received little attention. This analysis integrates important motivational and situational factors from organizational behavior theory and research into a model which describes how trainees' attributes and attitudes may influence the effectiveness of training.
1,215 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors suggest that the choice perspective be supplemented with a process perspective which recognizes the acquisition process itself as a potentially important determinant of activities and outcomes, and a series of research propositions is offered suggesting how four impediments present in the process itself might affect acquisition outcomes.
Abstract: Historically, acquisition scholars and practitioners have adopted a choice perspective which portrays the corporate executive analyzing acquisition opportunities as a rational decision maker. This paper suggests that the choice perspective be supplemented with a process perspective which recognizes the acquisition process itself as a potentially important determinant of activities and outcomes. A series of research propositions is offered suggesting how four impediments present in the process itself might affect acquisition outcomes.
1,144 citations
TL;DR: In this article, an expanded self-leadership view is developed that includes self-imposed strategies for managing performance of tasks of low intrinsic motivational potential and self-influence that capitalizes on the "natural"/intrinsic motivational value of task activity.
Abstract: The considerable attention devoted to individual self-influence processes in organizations has been limited to scope, focusing primarily on self-management that facilitates behaviors that are not naturally motivating and that meet externally anchored standards. In this paper, individual self-control systems are viewed as the central control mechanisms within organizations. An expanded “self-leadership” view is developed that includes (a) self-imposed strategies for managing performance of tasks of low intrinsic motivational potential and (b) self-influence that capitalizes on the “natural”/intrinsic motivational value of task activity. Implications for theory and practice are addressed.
841 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a model of client involvement stages is proposed, role definition and control for clients in complex service creation are discussed, and attention to issues that emerge from this discussion is encouraged.
Abstract: Clients of service organizations have important roles to perform in creating services. Yet, comparatively little attention has been directed at the participation of clients in complex and demanding client performance domains. In this paper, clients are viewed as “partial” employees and (1) a model of client involvement stages is proposed, (2) role definition and control for clients in complex service creation are discussed, and (3) attention to issues that emerge from this discussion is encouraged.
685 citations
TL;DR: In this article, three concepts of competition, each reflecting different research traditions in microeconomics, are discussed: Industrial Organization competition, Chamherlinian competition, and Schumpeterian competition.
Abstract: Three concepts of competition, each reflecting different research traditions in microeconomics, are discussed: Industrial Organization competition, Chamherlinian competition, andSchumpeterian competition. The implications of each for normative theories of strategy are discussed, and a single framework which describes the types of competitive forces a firm is likely to face over time is suggested.
679 citations
TL;DR: This paper critically reviews the state of construct measurement in organizational strategy research, develops a set of key criteria specifically for strategy measurement, and proposes some recommendations for integrating strategy concepts with their measures.
Abstract: Strategic management researchers have emphasized concept development but generally have ignored construct measurement issues. Because a strong linkage between concepts and their measures enhances theory development, it is necessary to validate strategy measures systematically. In this vein, this paper (a) critically reviews the state of construct measurement in organizational strategy research; (b) develops a set of key criteria specifically for strategy measurement; and (c) proposes some recommendations for integrating strategy concepts with their measures.
TL;DR: In this article, the controversy over using college students as subjects in applied research has been a topic of philosophical discourse and empirical investigation, and thirty-two studies are reviewed in which students and nonstudents participated as subjects under identical conditions.
Abstract: The controversy over using college students as subjects in applied research has been a topic of philosophical discourse and empirical investigation. Thirty-two studies are reviewed in which students and nonstudents participated as subjects under identical conditions. In studies reporting statistical tests of between-group differences, the preponderance of findings indicated that the experimental results differed in the two samples. By contrast, no major differences associated with the type of subject were reported in the majority of studies which did not employ statistical procedures to compare the findings in the two samples. Explanations for differences in the sample are offered, and serve as a basis for recommendations for future research.
TL;DR: In this paper, contributions from the strategic decision process literature are synthesized and integrated with literature on organizational structure to describe how the characteristics of an organization's strategic decision processes are affected by its structure.
Abstract: Contributions from the strategic decision process literature are synthesized and integrated with literature on organizational structure. Propositions emerge that describe how the characteristics of an organization's strategic decision process are affected by its structure. Also discussed are the patterns of strategic process characteristics that are likely to be associated with different types of structures. Conclusions are reached on issues such as the accuracy of alternative models of the strategic decision process, and the appropriate unit of analysis for studying that process.
TL;DR: In this article, a comprehensive career model (a more definitive picture of the determinants of entrepreneurial behavior for women) is developed, which provides a clear picture of factors which encourage an individual to enter upon an entrepreneurial career.
Abstract: Recent literature on female entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial careers reveals that: (a) up to this time, piecemeal studies of entrepreneurs (male and female) fail to provide a clear picture of the factors which encourage an individual to enter upon an entrepreneurial career; and (b) even less is known about female than male entrepreneurs. A comprehensive career model (a more definitive picture of the determinants of entrepreneurial behavior for women) is developed.
TL;DR: For instance, the authors suggests that escalating commitment may occur in a much wider variety of circumstances than is suggested by the view that it is a product of self-justification motives.
Abstract: Escalating commitment to a losing course of action is usually attributed to a need on the part of decision makers to maintain the illusion that they have not erred. Prospect theory suggests a different explanation for this commonly observed tendency—escalating commitment is seen as an artifact of the framing of decisions. As a result, escalating commitment may occur in a much wider variety of circumstances than is suggested by the view that it is a product of self-justification motives.
TL;DR: In this paper, a typology of moderators based on the mechanisms by which moderators operate is proposed and applied to several contingency theories of leadership and implications for future leadership research and practice are discussed.
Abstract: Much recent research on leadership has concerned moderator (contingency) variables. This research has yielded equivocal and/or conflicting results. Conceptually distinct variables have been treated as if they operate in the same fashion. This paper suggests a typology of moderators based on the mechanisms by which moderators operate. Moderators are classified as neutralizers/enhancers, substitutes/supplements, or mediators depending on how they affect leader behavior-criterion relationships. The typology is applied to several contingency theories of leadership and implications for future leadership research and practice are discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, a dynamic model of personal control is proposed, defined as the individual's beliefs, at a given point in time, in his or her ability to effect a change, in a desired direction, on the environment.
Abstract: A dynamic model of personal control is proposed in this paper. Personal control is defined as the individual's beliefs, at a given point in time, in his or her ability to effect a change, in a desired direction, on the environment. Individuals in organizations are viewed as desirous of increasing their personal control. It is argued that employees of organizations persist in their attempts to restore a balance in their control perceptions, even when desired outcomes may not be attainable. Managerial implications of the model are described.
TL;DR: A meta-analytic review of 17 studies examining sex differences in leadership indicates that male and female leaders exhibit equal amounts of initiating structure and consideration and have equally satisfied subordinates as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: A meta-analytic review of 17 studies examining sex differences in leadership indicates that male and female leaders exhibit equal amounts of initiating structure and consideration and have equally satisfied subordinates. Male leaders are rated as more effective than female leaders, but only in laboratory settings. A moratorium on research comparing male and female leaders on measures of initiating structure, consideration, subordinate satisfaction, and effectiveness is proposed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors draw on research in behavioral decision theory to develop a model of the process by which executives can encourage commitment in contributors through the promotion of specific cognitive heuristics and biases.
Abstract: Inducing commitment in contributors is an important concern for executives promoting courses of action. In this paper, the author draws on research in behavioral decision theory to develop a model of the process by which executives can encourage commitment in contributors through the promotion of specific cognitive heuristics and biases. An example of the possible uses of information in promoting commitment and a discussion of the ethical issues involved in using information in this way are also provided.
TL;DR: In this article, a typology is offered in which differing governance mechanisms are matched to varying levels of transaction costs in service exchanges, and the focus is on prescribing governance mechanisms that establish the most efficient boundary between the service organization and the customer, thereby improving service organization effectiveness.
Abstract: Transaction cost analysis can explain the arrangements that emerge to govern and organize service organization-customer exchanges. A typology is offered in which differing governance mechanisms are matched to varying levels of transaction costs in service exchanges. The focus is on prescribing governance mechanisms that establish the most efficient boundary between the service organization and the customer, thereby improving service organization effectiveness.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a strategic view of environmental uncertainty for profit-oriented organizations, and argue that managers make decisions that sometimes result in the aggressive creation of environmental uncertainties.
Abstract: This paper presents a strategic view of environmental uncertainty for profit-oriented organizations. It argues that managers make decisions that sometimes result in the aggressive creation of environmental uncertainty. A proposed model suggests that although strategy, structure, and performance constitute environmental enactment processes, the environment also directly influences organization performance. Further, the performance of others influences the environment through individual and collective actions.
TL;DR: In this paper, four research issues are identified that highlight the contrasting perspectives of strategic management and finance on event-study methodology, and these issues are used to evaluate five finance procedures used to calculate market-based performance measures.
Abstract: Four research issues are identified that highlight the contrasting perspectives of strategic management and finance on event-study methodology. These issues then are used to evaluate five finance procedures used to calculate market-based performance measures. In each case, alternative procedures are recommended to make these measures more relevant both conceptually and statistically, for strategic management research.
TL;DR: In a previous paper as discussed by the authors, the links between executive personality and the strategic and organizational orientations of troubled firms were examined, and it was argued that the personality of the top executive could influence strategy only in centralized firms; now, it is believed that this can happen even in decentralized organizations.
Abstract: In a previous paper, the links between executive personality and the strategic and organizational orientations of troubled firms were examined. In the present paper, original typologies of neurotic styles and corporate pathology are used, but the two are related using the concept of organizational culture which provides a useful vehicle for linking personality with strategy. In the previous paper it was argued that the personality of the top executive could influence strategy only in centralized firms; now, it is believed that through culture this can happen even in decentralized organizations. Several sets of hypotheses are generated to formalize this position.
TL;DR: In this paper, a descriptive theoretical model is presented that explains how individuals recognize problems in organizational situations, and the model draws on the information-processing literature in an attempt to capture key activities and their sequence in the process of problem recognition.
Abstract: A descriptive theoretical model is presented that explains how individuals recognize problems in organizational situations. The model draws on the information-processing literature in an attempt to capture key activities and their sequence in the process of problem recognition. The model suggests that individuals move among three stages of gestation, categorization, and diagnosis, and deal with choice and value situations as the process unfolds. The paper presents propositions for empirical testing. Implications for management education are offered.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors provide a theoretical basis for determining effective corporate political strategies, including constituency building, political action committee contributions, advocacy advertising, lobbying, and coalition building, and derive a contingency approach to the selection of appropriate strategies from the model and a typology of legislative decision situations.
Abstract: This paper attempts to provide a theoretical basis for determining effective corporate political strategies. The strategies considered are the five most commonly used by politically active firms: constituency building, political action committee contributions, advocacy advertising, lobbying, and coalition building. Relevant literature is reviewed and an exchange model of legislative decision making is developed. A contingency approach to the selection of appropriate strategies is derived from the model and a typology of legislative decision situations.
TL;DR: In this paper, a model showing factors which may generate career growth from job loss is proposed, and organizational strategies are recommended for creative management of this career transition and suggestions are provided to focus future research.
Abstract: Despite the improving economy, consolidation and staff reductions characterize the human resource staffing policies of many firms. Furthermore, economic and demographic pressures indicate that involuntary job loss will be an increasingly common experience for managers and professionals in the coming decade. Based on a synthesis of empirical studies, this paper proposes a model showing factors which may generate career growth from job loss. Organizational strategies are recommended for creative management of this career transition and suggestions are provided to focus future research.
TL;DR: In this paper, the underlying values of OD are compared to those that predominate in 40 countries, and specific OD interventions are then examined separately to determine their fit with the values of these countries.
Abstract: Organization development is one of many American management techniques utilized overseas. Based on an empirically derived model of culture, the underlying values of OD are compared to those that predominate in 40 countries. Specific OD interventions are then examined separately to determine their fit with the values of these countries. The results help explain why OD has encountered problems and provide guidelines for selecting and carrying out interventions in a culturally sensitive manner.
TL;DR: A system for defining hospital products based on the characteristics of patients receiving similar sets of services has been developed and is referred to as Diagnosis Related Groups (DRGs), and its implications for improved hospital management are discussed.
Abstract: The hospital is viewed as a human service enterprise whose primary function is the provision of diagnostic and therapeutic medical services. Its products are the specific sets of services provided to individual patients. A system for defining hospital products based on the characteristics of patients receiving similar sets of services has been developed and is referred to as Diagnosis Related Groups (DRGs). The system is described, and its implications for improved hospital management are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine opportunities and risks of collective strategies and present a model which provides an integrated analysis of the consequences of collective strategy; it highlights the dialectical relationship between collective and competitive strategies.
Abstract: This study examines opportunities and risks of collective strategies. Some dysfunctional outcomes of collective strategies include their tendencies: to reduce strategic flexibility; to increase the impact of external disturbances; to lower organizational adaptability; and to attract new entrants. A model is developed which provides an integrated analysis of the consequences of collective strategy; it highlights the dialectical relationship between collective and competitive strategies. Possibilities for avoiding or muting the dysfunctions of collective strategies are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, a model that integrates the content and process considerations of social responsibility using a marketing orientation is proposed to increase the firm's relative competitive advantage and enhance the benefits of socially responsive behaviors.
Abstract: Corporate social responsibility is conceptualized as a “product” offered to key publics of the firm. A model is proposed that integrates the content and process considerations of social responsibility using a “marketing” orientation. This approach is designed to increase the firm's relative competitive advantage and enhance the benefits of socially responsive behaviors.