Showing papers in "Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences in 2020"

Ceramic technology. How to reconstruct the firing process

Abstract: Focused on uncoated ceramics, this tutorial paper is divided into two main sections. The first section deals with the operational phases required prior to firing (drying, piling, fuel supply). Then, the second chapter deals with the transformations that occur in the clayey paste during firing. An overall understanding of the firing process includes several issues to be considered and properly investigated. Thereafter, the thermal behaviour of several mineralogical phases (calcite and dolomite; quartz and cristobalite; K-feldspar and plagioclase; rutile and anatase; haematite, maghemite, hercynite and metallic Fe; illite, muscovite, biotite and chlorite; wollastonite, melilite, anorthite and monticellite; diopside and kaolinite) is described. Four brief chapters are further dedicated to the development of the amorphous/glassy component, to the matrix and its porosity, to the colour and the organic matter and to the variations in chemical composition, respectively. The concluding remarks provide a short list of the analytical techniques that have been commonly applied to the investigation of firing conditions and a concise summary of the state of the art of the “firing issue”. The method to be applied in future experimental reproductions and the opportunity itself to investigate the “firing issue” in various contexts are further discussed.

Ceramic technology: how to recognize clay processing

Abstract: The issue of clay processing concerns both provenance and techno-functional ceramic investigations. In the former, the compositional/textural modification of clay alters the petrofacies expressed by the ceramic body and causes a change from the raw material in terms of bulk chemical and mineralogical composition and petrographical features as well. In the latter, identifying the signs of clay processing will provide information on the steps of the chaine operatoire and on the technological choices made to adjust paste plasticity and to avoid failures in the following stages of manufacture. Several examples of clay processing were considered, encompassing deliberate addition of natural and artificial temper and clay mixing, other than fractioning and homogenisation to prepare the forming stage. The expected effects of mineral, vegetal and animal tempers on the paste and on the fired body were outlined. Finally, some analytical guidelines are provided to identify clay processing, using the most common analytical methods. Optical microscopy and electron microscopy provide the main contribution to identifying most of the processing practices on the clay, whereas bulk methods provide indirect evidence that may alone be insufficient to prove the occurrence of a specific transformation, as well as to detect homogenisation features. However, only a careful and multidisciplinary investigation of the ceramic body will help reveal the actions of the chaine operatoire and to test archaeological models in a sound bottom-up perspective.

Ceramic raw materials: how to recognize them and locate the supply basins: chemistry

Abstract: Provenance studies of archaeological ceramics by analysis of their elemental composition are based on the assumption that clays can be distinguished, which were used for pottery manufacture in different workshops or production centres. The clay pastes used for the ceramic manufacture were prepared from natural raw materials extracted commonly in the vicinity of the production sites. Due to different geological contexts of local raw material sources, differences of their elemental compositions can be expected, which are propagated to elemental compositions of the ceramics. The general distinctiveness of natural raw material sources is presumed in the ‘Provenience Postulate’, which, though, has to be verified in each case study. For investigation of ceramics and raw materials potentially used for their manufacture, different practices of clay paste preparation have to be considered which might confine the direct comparison. In the present paper, the study of raw materials will be introduced as integral part of ceramic provenance studies. Issues, such as intra-source and intersource variation, elemental composition in context with clay type and accessory mineral, clay paste preparation, and methodological constraints will be discussed by means of raw material and ceramic data from Greece and the Greek islands.

Ceramic technology. How to characterise ceramic glazes

Abstract: Glazes add value to ceramic, improve its appearance (colour and shine) and make it waterproof. Through the choice of colours and designs, glazes made ceramics fashionable, even luxurious, and therefore, an object of trade. Each region and ruling dynasty developed its own style or trademark which makes them particularly suitable for dating purposes. Therefore, the study and analysis of glazes offers direct information about the acquisition of technical skills (technology), trade of specific materials (inter-regional links), migrations and the introduction/adoption of new trends. A ceramic glaze is a thin glassy layer fused to the surface of a ceramic body through firing. The interaction between the glaze and the ceramic body results in the interdiffusion of elements between both. A glaze consists mainly of an amorphous phase, but also includes bubbles, cracks and crystalline phases (undissolved compounds and crystals formed during the firing). Finally, the glazes were also decorated, and a large variety of materials and methods of applying the decorations were used. In this chapter, we present a summary of the technical characteristics of glazes (composition, microstructures and technical requirements), their discovery and use throughout history and decorative techniques. The methodology and analytical techniques to obtain the information are also discussed.

Ceramic raw materials: how to recognize them and locate the supply basins—mineralogy, petrography

Abstract: This tutorial paper is focused on the mineralogical-petrographic characterization of clayey raw materials with the purpose of sourcing supply basins and answering questions about the provenance of the corresponding archaeological ceramic artefacts. The first part gives general indications of how to profitably study archaeological ceramic thin sections through the polarizing microscope. Brief notes are provided on the theoretical basis of optical microscopy. A scheme is then provided for the petrographic description of ceramic samples, concerning the textural and compositional characteristics of aplastic inclusions and groundmass. Suggestions are also given for identifying any minero-petrographic marker and establishing minero-petrographic groups (MGP) aimed at archaeological ceramic provenance studies. After broadly describing the geological origin of the clay deposits, there is discussion of how to plan a field survey aimed at the location of clay sources and sampling. The importance of the ethnoarchaeometric approach in provenance studies is also underlined. The third part of the paper describes the preliminary treatments to which the clayey raw materials are subjected before reporting on a grain size analysis and how to proceed when performing experimental firing tests. Finally some suggestions are made about how to compare clay firing tests (experimental briquettes) and archaeological ceramic finds when assessing a production centre.

Ceramic abandonment. How to recognise post-depositional transformations

Abstract: After they have been abandoned, ceramic materials may undergo substantial transformations, all of which may change their macroscopic aspect, mineralogy, chemical composition and microstructure. The intensity and pervasiveness of these transformations on both macro- and micro-scales depend to a great extent not only on their compositional and microstructural features but also on the chemical-physical characteristics of the post-depositional environment in which they were hosted. This contribution describes the main post-depositional transformations observed in ancient ceramics in relation to secondary phases precipitation, mineral dissolution, pristine mineral and amorphous phases transformations into new mineral phases, and chemical leaching and enrichment. The mechanisms responsible for these transformations are described, together with the characteristics which allow us to identify them according to the most common analytical approaches, in order not to introduce misleading interpretations concerning the study of the provenance and production technology of ancient ceramic materials.

Ceramic technology. How to reconstruct and describe pottery-forming practices

Abstract: The article discusses the various options for reconstructing pottery-forming techniques and for making reliable interpretations of forming practices based on archaeological evidence. It begins with a consideration of a classification of forming techniques that provides a framework with a suitable resolution within which observed phenomena can be understood. Such a classification should reflect meaningful distinctions among the forming practices: (a) in terms of the potter’s behaviour and also (b) in terms of the visibility of the effects in the archaeological record. The description of the forming practice reflects the fact that the forming method is a complex series of actions and often comprises more than one technique. The individual techniques are combined in two ways: (a) sequential, to create a single part, and (b) segmental, to create different parts. The relevant diagnostic attributes of pottery-forming practices are related to the structure and shape/size of the ceramics. They can be divided into five categories: (a) surface morphology and topography, (b) variation in the wall thickness, (c) remnants of segmental joints, (d) specific fractures, and (e) alignment and orientation of the components of the ceramic body. Two sources of misinterpretation of the diagnostic features define two types of ambiguous diagnostic features: (a) features that are correlated with a particular technique but are not necessarily a consequence of this technique and (b) features that are a necessary consequence of a particular technique but could also be a consequence of another technique. The analysis is intended to sufficiently narrow the range of possible alternatives by excluding those alternatives that cannot be the cause of the observed phenomena. Many features are randomly preserved on a small proportion of the pottery fragments, and thus, it is difficult to draw statistical inferences based on the evidence of these features. One diagnostic feature is prominent in this respect—the orientation of the components of the ceramic body. This can be observed and measured for every ceramic fragment. The analytical methods comprise direct visual observation and various imaging methods. Direct visual observation is carried out at three scales: macro, meso, and micro. Different scales of observation bring different types of information. Their use in combination is optimum for a reliable analysis. Various imaging methods can display what is difficult or even impossible to observe directly or what is observable at the cost of a destructive impact on the studied object. The image data can represent either the surfaces of the investigated objects or their internal structure, and 2D or 3D techniques are used in both cases. The observations related to pottery forming are most commonly classified or described in a given set of qualitative categories. The advantage of the qualitative approach is that the complex phenomena can be captured using appropriately defined categories. The quantitative approach relies on a measurable parameter or set of parameters to characterize the diagnostic features. The exact measurements have the potential to refine the analysis based on descriptive categories and create a stronger basis for scientific argumentation. However, in many cases, quantification reduces the complexity of the diagnostic features to just several aspects that can be measured. Therefore, it is important to combine the strengths of both of these approaches.

The brewing function of the first amphorae in the Neolithic Yangshao culture, North China

Abstract: In recent years, functional study of Neolithic pottery found in the Yellow River valley has shown that globular jars of the pre-Yangshao period (ca. 7000–5000 cal. BC) and jiandiping amphorae of the middle and late Yangshao period (ca. 4000–2900 cal. BC) were alcohol fermentation vessels. However, there is a time gap of 1000 years (ca. 5000–4000 cal. BC) between these two sets of vessels, namely the Early Yangshao period when amphorae first appeared. In order to further our understanding of alcohol production in Neolithic China, we employed scientific methods to examine microfossil remains in the residues adhering to the interior walls of eleven among the earliest amphorae from the Banpo and Jiangzhai sites in Shaanxi province. Multiple lines of evidence—taken from starch granules, phytoliths, molds, yeast cells, and rod-shaped calcite crystals found in the residues—indicate that these amphorae were used for brewing alcoholic beverages. The ingredients mainly include broomcorn millet, together with other cereals (foxtail millet, rice and Triticeae), wild peas and tubers (snake gourd roots and foxnut). Two brewing methods have been detected: use of sprouted grain and use of qu starter made of moldy grain with herbs. Siphoning through reed straws may have been one of the drinking methods. The results of this research open a new window not only for understanding the long tradition of alcohol production in prehistoric China, but also for investigating alcohol-related social activities of the Yangshao people.

Ceramic investigation: how to perform statistical analyses

Abstract: The aim of this article is to summarize and organize the methodologies used for the statistical analysis in the field of ceramic investigation and, more specifically, the study of ceramic provenance. An update and review of all related methodologies is provided during the presentation of a typical statistical analysis. The presentation is given in a step-by-step process and emphasis is on interpretation of the intermediate and final results. The analysis attempts to cover the following:

Ceramic technology: how to characterize terra sigillata ware

Abstract: As part of the Topical Collection on the archaeometric study of ceramics, this paper focuses on terra sigillata ware. The main aims are to provide a review on the state of the art of the studies and to provide a guide to the most suitable analytical techniques. The text is divided into four main parts: (1) a brief archaeological introduction on the ancient production of terra sigillata; (2) a summary of the archaeometric studies carried out to date; (3) a reasoned list of the most suitable techniques for the investigation of the ceramic body and (4) an in-depth discussion on the most effective techniques for the study of the coating. The application of both destructive and non-destructive techniques is critically evaluated as well as the advantages and disadvantages provided by the different instrumentation, in terms of sample preparations and expected results.

Ceramics investigation: research questions and sampling criteria

Abstract: Ceramics are a key indicator for the study of cultural heritage: – A valuable technological indicator because (a) ceramics mark the passage from the simple exploitation to the complex control of fire; (b) they represent the first pyrotechnological product of a certain complexity; and (c) they are able of triggering the development of other technologies such as those involving the processing of metal and glass. – A valuable socio-economic indicator because (a) ceramics are brought into the houses of both poor and wealthy families; (b) they provide evidence of trade routes and cultural exchange; and (c) they are able to pass on significant information about the evolution of aesthetic taste as well as dietary habits through the centuries. – A valuable chronological indicator because (a) their comparative study can provide accurate dating; (b) they can provide absolute dates by thermo-luminescence testing; and (c) they enable the dating of other materials found in stratigraphic association. In this framework, research questions are discussed according to the different steps of a typical research project in progress: from the individuation of the archaeological site or area, to the selection of the ceramic types to be investigated and the samples to be taken for the analyses. It is proposed that research questions should contribute to the reconstruction of a “big picture” covering wide and complex issues such as the circulation of a specific type of goods within large geographic areas and/or the diachronic evolution of production technology. It can be demonstrated that farsighted strategy in research planning can provide material for preliminary articles that satisfy professional obligations to publish periodically while also laying the groundwork for truly important contributions to the field. The distinct fields of provenance, technology, function, use, chronology and conservation are briefly reviewed in order to provide an introductory framework to the following contributions of this Topical Collection. As for research design, the aim here is to reaffirm the importance of typology and contextualization as the basis for all studies undertaken. Finally, it is demonstrated that true multidisciplinary collaboration, rather than working in silos according to different specializations, provides the best approach to obtaining accurate and meaningful results.

Livestock faecal indicators for animal management, penning, foddering and dung use in early agricultural built environments in the Konya Plain, Central Anatolia.

Abstract: Livestock dung is a valuable material for reconstructing human and animal inter-relations and activity within open areas and built environments. This paper examines the identification and multi-disciplinary analysis of dung remains from three neighbouring sites in the Konya Plain of Central Anatolia, Turkey: Boncuklu (ninth-eighth millennium cal BC), the Catalhoyuk East Mound (eighth-sixth millennium cal BC), and the Late Neolithic occupation at the Pinarbasi rockshelter (seventh millennium cal BC). It presents and evaluates data on animal management strategies and husbandry practices through the simultaneous examination of plant and faecal microfossils and biomarkers with thin-section micromorphology and integrated phytolith, dung spherulite, and biomolecular analyses, together with comparative reference geo-ethnoarchaeological assemblages. Herbivore dung and other coprogenic materials have been identified predominantly in open areas, pens and midden deposits through micromorphology and the chemical signatures of their depositional contexts and composition. Accumulations of herbivore faecal material and burnt remains containing calcitic spherulites and phytoliths have provided new information on animal diet, fodder and dung fuel. Evidence from phytoliths from in situ penning deposits at early Neolithic Catalhoyuk have provided new insights into foddering/grazing practices by identifying highly variable herbivorous regimes including both dicotyledonous and grass-based diets. This review illustrates the variability of dung deposits within early agricultural settlements and their potential for tracing continuity and change in ecological diversity, herd management strategies and foddering, health, energy and dung use, as well as the complexity of interactions between people and animals in this key region during the early Holocene.

Ceramic technology: how to characterise black Fe-based glass-ceramic coatings

Abstract: The study of the ancient black ceramic coating that decorates the surface of Classical and Hellenistic pottery from Attica and other main production centres in the Mediterranean has been the subject of more than three centuries of research. The physicochemical characterisation and analysis of the black glaze/gloss (BG) with the use of a broad spectrum of analytical techniques has gradually revealed its nature as an iron-based glass-ceramic material. At its best, it is coloured by polycrystalline nanoparticles of magnetite or mixed magnetite/hercynite spinels, dispersed in the amorphous K-aluminosilicate phase doped by Fe2+/Fe3+. We discuss the technique to produce the BGc (black glass-ceramic, hereafter), known as the “iron reduction technique”, with emphasis on the 3-stage firing under oxidising-reducing-oxidising (ORO) conditions as well as the latest analytical results through XPS, high-resolution TEM, SR-micro XRD and XANES. The discussion is based on data and research experience accumulated over the years from the application of conventional techniques (such as SEM-EDS and hhXRF) on ancient samples, laboratory reproductions and contemporary full-scale reproduction of similar artefacts. We show that the parameters affecting the quality of the BGc (sheen, colour, micromorphology) depend on the nature of the clay-slip, the application process, the ORO firing scheme and weathering mechanisms due to burial in humid terrestrial or marine environment. The proposed analytical protocol for the routine characterisation of the micromorphology and the analysis of the BGc and the ceramic body involves the use of non-destructive or minutely destructive techniques with special emphasis on the pottery sample classification and documentation.

Bridging the gap on the southward dispersal route of agriculture in China: new evidences from the Guodishan site, Jiangxi province

Abstract: The southward spread of agriculture in China has long been regarded as a hot topic worldwide, as it is closely related to the further dispersal of farming into Southeast Asia and beyond. However, the absence of Neolithic agriculture evidence in Jiangxi province, the crossroad of the southward dispersal route, makes it difficult to confirm the specific diffusion route and triggers many debates. This study for the first time provides solid evidence of Neolithic mixed farming based on rice and foxtail millet in this region, dating back to at least 4850 cal. BP and finally bridges the gap on the proposed southward dispersal route of agriculture in China. This discovery also underlines the universality of mixed agriculture and the importance of millets in the early farming practices of Southern China.

Towards an understanding of hominin marrow extraction strategies: a proposal for a percussion mark terminology

Abstract: Percussion marks have been studied in the field of archaeology for more than a century. Researchers have identified, characterized and analysed them in order to distinguish them from traces of environment modification to bone and reconstruct hominin subsistence strategies. The multiplicity of studies based on percussion marks in different languages has led to a proliferation of different terminologies used for the same marks, especially in English. In addition, as a result of numerous experimental studies or ethnological observations, it is possible to accurately identify the different steps of the butchery process and each of the related marks. We know from experimental studies that the morphology of percussion traces inflicted by the same tools can differ as their morphology depends on many factors (i.e. location and intensity of blows, intrinsic bone variables). In addition to this, carnivore and hominin traces can be superimposed, which sometimes renders their interpretation difficult. Renewed interest in these percussion marks owing to the emergence of new technical means highlighted the need to review their classification and clarify the nomenclature. With this in mind, we reviewed the abundant scientific literature to propose a refined and descriptive nomenclature. The aim is to provide a coherent terminology for the description and analysis of impact fractures in different European languages. We also propose classifying percussion marks into three categories: (1) percussion marks sensu stricto, (2) traces consecutive to bone breakage and (3) striation marks related to marrow extraction.

Ceramic technology. How to investigate surface finishing

Abstract: Surface treatment techniques, that is, smoothing and burnishing, help to define the cultural, traditional, and economical state of an ancient society. They prove artistic feelings combined with practical skills were used to obtain more attractive and highly functional objects. This paper aims to prepare the reader to investigate ceramic surfaces and discern between different treatments. Interpretation of the finishing techniques is based mainly on a wide variety of surface topography. Both treatments plastically deform the surface and tend to diminish its roughness, but the results are strikingly different. A smoothed surface has still large irregularities and a dull or matte appearance due to the diffuse reflection of light. A burnished surface has only small-sized irregularities and is glossy/lustrous due to specular reflection of light. Smoothing slightly aligns the platy minerals only at the very surface, whereas, burnishing may create two separate individual levels: A burnish peel and a subsurface layer. The differences are evidenced by all applied analytical methods, such as macroscopy, optical microscopy, electron microprobe, scanning electron microscopy, and vertical scanning interferometry.

Further insight into Neolithic agricultural management at Kouphovouno, southern Greece: expanding the isotopic approach

Abstract: This paper investigates agricultural management choices of farmers at the Neolithic site of Kouphvouno, southern Greece. Previous stable isotopic analysis of charred plant remains and bone animal collagen showed that throughout the Neolithic occupation of this site, farmers employed species-specific strategies to cultivate crops and herd domestic animals. Additional analyses of charred plant remain carried out in this study (including einkorn, a cereal species not measured before) expanding our understanding of the diversity and flexibility of early crop cultivation on a local scale. Furthermore, sequential tooth enamel carbonate isotopic analyses are used to assess the seasonal dietary and grazing patterns of domestic sheep and goat, providing a more nuanced picture of the roles of these animals in the subsistence economy of this community. The results show that the species-specific cultivation system was dictated by the crops’ ecological adaptations. Based on a small number of individuals available for analysis, the findings suggest that animal management was also likely driven by cultural choices, and involved foddering of goats managed for milk and local grazing of sheep managed for meat.

Innovation or preservation? Abbasid aubergines, archaeobotany, and the Islamic Green Revolution

Abstract: The topic of agricultural innovation in the Early Islamic empires has become increasingly relevant for archeology, history, and even agricultural science. The validity of Andrew Watson’s original “Islamic Green Revolution” thesis will ultimately be verified or vindicated through archaeobotanical research, as Watson himself has suggested. However, rigorous criteria for exploiting the available archaeobotanical data and testing the basis of this thesis are needed. A simple theoretical framework relating archaeobotanical data to agricultural revolution is advanced below, and methodological criteria are presented for interpreting plant species introductions from the archeological record. These are applied to archaeobotanical “first finds” from an unprecedented assemblage of mineralized plant remains from an Abbasid Jerusalem bazaar, which included the earliest evidence for eggplant (Solanum melongena) in the Levant. Finally, we advocate a regional, crop-by-crop strategy for further interdisciplinary research on the Islamic Green Revolution.

Ceramic raw materials: how to establish the technological suitability of a raw material

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to highlight the importance of raw materials in the production of ceramic artefacts. A brief but in-depth explanation is provided to emphasise the connections between raw materials and ceramic products. A step by step approach is developed with the aim of illustrating the different ceramic raw materials and their features and describing the effects of each component on the characteristics of the end products with particular attention to their function and use. When a potter makes an object in fact, this was already conceived thinking for a specific purpose.

The impact of major warming at 14.7 ka on environmental changes and activity of Final Palaeolithic hunters at a local scale (Orawa-Nowy Targ Basin, Western Carpathians, Poland

Abstract: There is a widespread belief that the abrupt warming at 14.7 ka had a profound impact on the environment. However, the direct correlation between the global climatic event and changes in local environments is not obvious. We examined faunal succession in an intra-mountain basin of the Western Carpathians to assess the potential influence of the climatic change between Greenland Stadial-2a and Greenland Interstadial-1e on the local environment. We investigated three vertebrate assemblages (total number of identified specimens = 18,745; minimum number of individuals = 7515; 138 taxa) from Oblazowa Cave (western entrance) and a Rock overhang in Cisowa Rock, radiocarbon dated to the period before and after the global warming, between ca. 17.0 and 14.0 ka. Our data revealed that the major abrupt warming that occurred 14.7 ka had little impact on the local environment, which could suggest that ecosystems in Central Europe were resilient to the abrupt global climate changes. The increase in fauna population sizes and species diversities in local biotopes was gradual and began long before the temperature increase. This was supported by the analysis of ancient DNA of Microtus arvalis, which showed a gradual increase in effective population size after 19.0 ka. The results of palaeoclimatic reconstruction pointed out that the compared sites were characterized by similar climatic conditions. According to our calculations, the differences in the annual mean temperatures did not exceed 0.5 °C and mean annual thermal amplitude changed from 22.9 to 22.4 °C. The environmental changes before 14.7 ka had no impact on the activity of Final Palaeolithic hunters in the studied area.

On measuring the mean edge angle of lithic tools based on 3-D models – a case study from the southern Levantine Epipalaeolithic

Abstract: The edge angle of lithic tools is an important source of information on the intended function and the manufacturing technology of these artifacts. Yet, previously proposed procedures, both traditional and computer-based, can be flawed by ambiguity in the artifact positioning and in the choice of the points or surfaces defining the angle. A novel method, based on digital 3-D models of the artifact, calculates the measure of the edge angle based on its complete shape, providing an accurate and repeatable measurement of this feature. The procedure includes the automatic, univocal determination of the area that best represents the angle between the two surfaces, further increasing the objectivity of the result. To test its power in providing novel archaeological insight, the method is tested on a series of assemblages of Epipalaeolithic microliths. The combination of the obtained quantitative data with the typology-based cultural attribution of the assemblages highlights possible connections between different areas in the Southern Levant.

Isotopic investigations of Chinese ceramics

Abstract: This chapter provides insights into Chinese ceramic technologies of both bodies and glazes as well as provenance by using isotopes applied to a number of case studies. The use of Sr isotopes to investigate Chinese high-fired Celadon wares and blue-and-white Jingdezhen porcelain (Jiangxi province) has revealed a clear distinction associated with the fluxes used in the glazes: plant ash in celadons and limestone in Jingdezhen glazes, something that is not clear from major element analysis. Furthermore, the technique is able to suggest by implication the nature of the silica source used in the glazes—normally weathered granitic rocks or metamorphic rocks (porcelain stone) which also contains Sr. This leads to an isotopic mixing line of the 2 Sr-rich components and is proof that 2 Sr-rich components were mixed in the manufacture of limestone glaze. This is not the case for plant ash glazes. Eventually, the technique may be used in provenance studies. Like Sr isotope analysis, lead isotope analysis relies on there being a lack of or a minimal change in the isotope ratios when the raw materials are heated. Lead isotope analysis links the use of lead in glazes to the original metal ore and if a kiln uses a distinctive lead source in its glazes, it can provide a provenance for the pottery. This has been very successful in distinguishing Chinese Tang sancai wares made in the Huangye, Huangbao, Liquanfang and Qionglai kilns.

Ancient restoration and production technologies of Roman mortars from monuments placed in hydrogeological risk areas: a case study

Abstract: This paper focuses on the study of different Roman mortars (renders, finishing coats), used in the construction and restoration of the Forum Traiani thermal baths (Central Sardinia, Italy), a significant example of the Roman-style architecture in Sardinia The archaeological site is located in a high hydrogeological risk area, due to the cyclical flooding of nearby Tirso river Moreover, the presence of thermal saline (NaCl-bearing) water spring directly in contact with mortars and building stones, also contributed to structure degradation An analytical approach, comprising mineralogical-petrographic characterization, physical analysis and particle-size distribution of aggregate, was used for mortars characterization In addition, pXRD analysis on mortars defined the presence of alteration minerals while the thermal characterization (TGA) gave information about binder hydraulicity degree Further μ-XRD-associated μ-Raman spectroscopy and μ-FTIR were utilized for pigments identification on frescos Interesting results came from two wall stratigraphic series of mortars, highlighting construction stages, ancient restoring interventions and waterproofing methods The main pigments used on red, yellow and black frescoes were red ochre, goethite and wood charcoal respectively

Genetic analysis of male Hungarian Conquerors: European and Asian paternal lineages of the conquering Hungarian tribes

Abstract: According to historical sources, ancient Hungarians were made up of seven allied tribes and the fragmented tribes that split off from the Khazars, and they arrived from the Eastern European steppes to conquer the Carpathian Basin at the end of the ninth century AD. Differentiating between the tribes is not possible based on archaeology or history, because the Hungarian Conqueror artifacts show uniformity in attire, weaponry, and warcraft. We used Y-STR and SNP analyses on male Hungarian Conqueror remains to determine the genetic source, composition of tribes, and kin of ancient Hungarians. The 19 male individuals paternally belong to 16 independent haplotypes and 7 haplogroups (C2, G2a, I2, J1, N3a, R1a, and R1b). The presence of the N3a haplogroup is interesting because it rarely appears among modern Hungarians (unlike in other Finno-Ugric-speaking peoples) but was found in 37.5% of the Hungarian Conquerors. This suggests that a part of the ancient Hungarians was of Ugric descent and that a significant portion spoke Hungarian. We compared our results with public databases and discovered that the Hungarian Conquerors originated from three distant territories of the Eurasian steppes, where different ethnicities joined them: Lake Baikal-Altai Mountains (Huns/Turkic peoples), Western Siberia-Southern Urals (Finno-Ugric peoples), and the Black Sea-Northern Caucasus (Caucasian and Eastern European peoples). As such, the ancient Hungarians conquered their homeland as an alliance of tribes, and they were the genetic relatives of Asiatic Huns, Finno-Ugric peoples, Caucasian peoples, and Slavs from the Eastern European steppes.

A method for the taphonomic assessment of bone tools using 3D surface texture analysis of bone microtopography

Abstract: Increasingly researchers have employed confocal microscopy and 3D surface texture analysis to assess bone surface modifications in an effort to understand ancient behavior. However, quantitative comparisons between the surfaces of purported archaeological bone tools and experimentally manufactured and used bones are complicated by taphonomic processes affecting ancient bone. Nonetheless, it may be reasonable to assume that bones within the same deposits are altered similarly and thus these alterations are quantifiable. Here we show how unworked bones can be used to quantify the taphonomic effect on bone surfaces and how this effect can then be controlled for and incorporated into an analysis for evaluating the modified surfaces of purported bone tools. To assess the baseline taphonomy of Middle Paleolithic archaeological deposits associated with typologically identified bone artifacts, specificallylissoirs, we directly compare the surface textures of ancient and modern unworked ribs. We then compare the ancient unworked ribs andlissoirsto assess their differences and predict the ancient artifacts' original surface state using a multilevel multivariate Bayesian model. Our findings demonstrate that three of five tested surface texture parameters (Sa,Spc, andIsT) are useful for distinguishing surface type. Our model predictions show thatlissoirstend to be less rough, have more rounded surface peaks, and exhibit more directionally oriented surfaces. These characteristics are likely due to anthropogenic modifications and would have been more pronounced at deposition. Quantifying taphonomic alterations moves us one step closer to accurately assessing how bone artifacts were made and used in the ancient past.

Unveiling the secrets of Roman craftsmanship: mortars from Piscina Mirabilis ( Campi Flegrei , Italy)

Abstract: Aim of this study is the characterisation of ancient Roman mortars collected in Piscina Mirabilis, located in the important geological, archaeological and historical area of the Campania Region (southern Italy): the Campi Flegrei. Goals of this research were (a) improving knowledge of Roman construction techniques by means of detailed microstructural and compositional examination of cementitious binding matrix and aggregates, to point out both mortar mix-design and provenance of raw materials, (b) the study of secondary minerogenetic processes and (c) comparison with modern mortars. Thanks to the permission by the former Soprintendenza Archeologia della Campania (authority of the archaeological heritage) current “Parco Archeologico dei Campi Flegrei”, it was possible to collect small, non-invasive, but representative samples of mortars. Samples were studied by combined methodologies such as optical microscopy (OM) on thin sections, X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), scanning electron microscopy analysis (SEM), energy-dispersion X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), simultaneous thermal analyses (STA) and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). Results showed that local geomaterials were used in this archaeological site, as they are well consistent with the surrounding geological setting. A relevant characteristic is the hydraulicity of these mortars shown by the reaction rims of pozzolanic materials. Composition of the cementitious binding matrix is characterized by various products of reaction, including amorphous C-A-S-H gel, calcite and Al-tobermorite. Results also highlighted that porosity represents the main difference between ancient Roman mortars and modern hydraulic ones.

Early interaction of agropastoralism in Eurasia: new evidence from millet-based food consumption of Afanasyevo humans in the southern Altai Mountains, Xinjiang, China

Abstract: Different agricultural and metallurgical systems had developed at the eastern and western ends of Eurasia continent before 3000 BC. As one of the earliest Bronze Age cultures in the Eurasian steppe, the Afanasyevo Culture originating from Southern Siberia, Russia, had played an extremely significant role in facilitating cultural interactions and the spread of domestic species in Eurasia. Hence, investigating the diets of Afanasyevo populations during their movements across the Eurasian steppe possibly provides important clues to explore when, where, and how the earlier cultural interactions happened. Here, we present the isotopic analysis of Afanasyevo humans found in Ayituohan Ι Cemetery (ca. 2836–2490 cal BC) in the southern Altai Mountains, Xinjiang of China, and compare with those of Afanasyevo humans from the different regions in Southern Siberia of Russia. All of the high δ15N values indicate that the subsistence strategies of Afanasyevo populations were dominated by the animal husbandry during their movements; meanwhile, the obviously high δ13C values in this study suggest that a certain amount of millet-based foods (millet crops and/or domesticated animals fed on millets) appeared in their diets as they settled in the southern Altai Mountains in Xinjiang of China. It provides new evidence for the millet transmission along Inner Asian Mountain Corridor and especially for the early interaction of multiregional agropastoralism between Eurasian steppe and northwest China.

Younger Dryas and early Holocene subsistence in the northern Great Basin: multiproxy analysis of coprolites from the Paisley Caves, Oregon, USA

Abstract: Younger Dryas and early Holocene Western Stemmed Tradition occupants of the northern Great Basin appear to have practiced a broad-based subsistence strategy including the consumption of a wide variety of small animal and plant resources. However, much of our evidence for human diet and land use during this period comes from dry cave and rockshelter sites where it can be challenging to distinguish plant and small animal remains deposited as a result of human versus nonhuman activity. This study presents new direct evidence for Younger Dryas and early Holocene human diet in the northern Great Basin through multiproxy analysis of nine human coprolites from the Paisley Caves, Oregon, USA. The evidence indicates that Western Stemmed Tradition occupants consumed plants, small mammals, fish, and insects, including direct evidence for consumption of whole rodents and several types of beetle. Occupation of the caves occurred during the summer and fall by individuals foraging on wetland, sagebrush grassland, and riparian ecological landscapes suggesting geographical and seasonal variability in land-use patterns during the Younger Dryas and early Holocene periods. This research suggests that Western Stemmed Tradition settlement patterns were seasonally centered on productive valley bottom lakes and wetlands but also included forays to a variety of ecological landscapes. The results highlight the importance of plant and small animal resources in the human diet during the terminal Pleistocene settlement of North America and contribute to debates about the process of the peopling of the Americas.

Back to the roots: dental calculus analysis of the first documented case of coeliac disease

Abstract: Dental calculus of a Roman woman (late first century–early second century CE), supposed to be the first historical evidence of coeliac disease (CD), was subjected to archaeobotanical investigations for reconstructing diet and phytotherapeutic practices. Light microscopy provided the proof she came in contact with gluten-rich cereals (i.e. Triticeae, Aveninae), which, maybe, were deleterious for a CD genetic predisposed individual like her. Gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry revealed that the young woman ingested, at least once in lifetime, plant foods and several herbs (e.g. Brassicaceae, Mentha sp., Valeriana sp., Apiaceae, Asteraceae, grapes or wine, honeydew or manna). About the latter, surprisingly, markers of Curcuma sp. and Panax sp. were detected. The consumption of these rhizomes, already used in the ancient Oriental medicine, supported the existence of cultural contact and exchange with the Eastern Asia. Encouraged by modern knowledge, we hypothesised that the inhumate used these roots as natural remedies to soothe her pathological condition. Our data provided information about the key role of the ethnobotany in Roman Imperial age.

The radiocarbon chronology and temporality of the megalithic cemetery of Los Millares (Almería, Spain)

Abstract: In 2012, a radiocarbon dating programme was undertaken to explore the chronology and temporality of megalithic monuments in south-eastern Iberia. After obtaining a new radiocarbon series of 90 dates that have changed many of our current approaches to this phenomenon, we have expanded the radiocarbon programme to one of the most iconic megalithic necropolises in Iberia, the cemetery of Los Millares. The new radiocarbon series modelled in a Bayesian framework was analysed in the context of the site including the settlement and the surrounding “forts”. The results led us to four main conclusions: (i) that mortuary activity began in last centuries of the 4th millennium cal BC (3219–3124 cal BC, 68% probability), preceding the settlement foundation by up to 230 years; (ii) that the tombs appear to have been used at different times and with different intensities; (iii) that “forts” were built when most of the settlement was abandoned and only the inner enclosure would remain inhabited; and (iv) that the end of the funerary and housing activities occurred in similar chronological intervals, before ca. 2200 cal BC.