Showing papers in "Behavior Research Methods Instruments & Computers in 1996"

GPOWER: A general power analysis program

Abstract: GPOWER is a completely interactive, menu-driven program for IBM-compatible and Apple Macintosh personal computers. It performs high-precision statistical power analyses for the most common statistical tests in behavioral research, that is,t tests,F tests, andχ2 tests. GPOWER computes (1) power values for given sample sizes, effect sizes andα levels (post hoc power analyses); (2) sample sizes for given effect sizes,α levels, and power values (a priori power analyses); and (3)α andβ values for given sample sizes, effect sizes, andβ/α ratios (compromise power analyses). The program may be used to display graphically the relation between any two of the relevant variables, and it offers the opportunity to compute the effect size measures from basic parameters defining the alternative hypothesis. This article delineates reasons for the development of GPOWER and describes the program’s capabilities and handling.

Producing high-dimensional semantic spaces from lexical co-occurrence

Abstract: A procedure that processes a corpus of text and produces numeric vectors containing information about its meanings for each word is presented. This procedure is applied to a large corpus of natural language text taken from Usenet, and the resulting vectors are examined to determine what information is contained within them. These vectors provide the coordinates in a high-dimensional space in which word relationships can be analyzed. Analyses of both vector similarity and multidimensional scaling demonstrate that there is significant semantic information carried in the vectors. A comparison of vector similarity with human reaction times in a single-word priming experiment is presented. These vectors provide the basis for a representational model of semantic memory, hyperspace analogue to language (HAL).

Lexical development norms for young children

Abstract: Developmental norms for young children’s vocabularies have a number of applications in research design, assessment, and intervention, but have previously been very difficult to obtain. In the present study, month-by-month norms for comprehension and production of 396 words from 8 to 16 months, and production of 680 words from 16 to 30 months, were derived from a norming study of 1,789 children between the ages of 8 and 30 months using the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories (Fenson et al., 1993). The norms are available in the form of a database program, LEX, for MS-DOS-based computers.

Naming times for the Snodgrass and Vanderwart pictures.

Abstract: This paper reports the results of two experiments. In the first, voice-key naming times were collected and in the second, keypress naming times were collected for 250 of the Snodgrass and Vanderwart (1980) pictures. The resulting naming times and correct naming rates were well predicted in multiple regression analyses by one or another measure of codability (name or concept agreement) and by age-of-acquisition ratings collected specifically for this study. Voice-key responses appeared to be somewhat more sensitive indicators of naming difficulty, although keypress responses did remarkably well. The Appendix presents the age-of-acquisition ratings, the trimmed vocal and keypress naming times, and the correct naming rates from the two experiments for the 250 pictures.

Latent semantic analysis for text-based research

Abstract: Latent semantic analysis (LSA) is a statistical model of word usage that permits comparisons of semantic similarity between pieces of textual information. This paper summarizes three experiments that illustrate how LSA may be used in text-based research. Two experiments describe methods for analyzing a subject’s essay for determining from what text a subject learned the information and for grading the quality of information cited in the essay. The third experiment describes using LSA to measure the coherence and comprehensibility of texts.

Statistical analysis of the bidirectional inconsistency of spelling and sound in French

Abstract: Recent studies suggest that performance attendant on visual word perception is affected not only by the “traditional” feedforward inconsistency (spelling → phonology) but also by its feedback inconsistency (phonology → spelling). The present study presents a statistical analysis of the bidirectional inconsistency for all French monosyllabic words. We show that French is relatively consistent from spelling to phonology but highly inconsistent from phonology to spelling. Appendixes B and C list prior and conditional probabilities for all inconsistent mappings and thus provide a valuable tool for controlling, selecting, and constructing stimulus materials for psycholinguistic and neuropsychological research. Such large-scale statistical analyses about a language’s structure are crucial for developing metrics of inconsistency, generating hypotheses for cross-linguistic research, and building computational models of reading.

Fully proportional actigraphy: A new instrument

Abstract: The relevance of activity measurement is reviewed. Technical information regarding a new, small, lightweight, fully proportional accelerometer-based activity monitor suited for a wide range of wrist, waist, and ankle activity measurements over extended time periods in free-ranging persons is presented. Calibration data demonstrating within- and between-device reliability and validity are presented. Field trial data are presented showing that wrist and waist actigraphs can predict kilocalories of energy expended. The issue of how activity monitors should be validated is discussed. Instrument reliability is distinguished from clinical repeatability. Recommendations are provided to assist investigators with instrument selection.

A set of 254 Snodgrass-Vanderwart pictures standardized for Spanish: Norms for name agreement, image agreement, familiarity, and visual complexity

Abstract: The Snodgrass and Vanderwart (1980) picture set was standardized for a Spanish sample (N = 261). The present article shows the main results, but more explicitly, it shows the differences between English and Spanish data. This evidence justifies the statement that normative data of cognitive stimuli cannot be taken into another language directly, because object names that are very common in one language may not be so in another, or objects that have a specific name in one language may have a generic name in another, and so on. Finally, because of the potential usefulness of the data for bilingualism studies, the Spanish data are presented jointly with the English data.

Proper methodologies for psychological and sociological studies conducted via the Internet

Abstract: This paper outlines specific methodologies for conducting research via computer networks. We discuss advantages of Internet experimentation over previous modes of telecommunication-facilitated research and characterize features of studies that can benefit from Internet access and those which are unlikely to. We point out pitfalls and suggest a range of potential solutions in terms of specific practical techniques for managing the design, dissemination, and collection of Internet materials. We also discuss techniques for minimizing attrition and for adapting to recalcitrance presented by “hacker” vandalism.

Measures of effect size.

Abstract: Two different approaches have been used to derive measures of effect size. One approach is based on the comparison of treatment means. The standardized mean difference is an appropriate measure of effect size when one is merely comparing two treatments, but there is no satisfactory analogue for comparing more than two treatments. The second approach is based on the proportion of variance in the dependent variable that is explained by the independent variable. Estimates have been proposed for both fixed-factor and random-factor designs, but their sampling properties are not well understood. Nevertheless, measures of effect size can allow quantitative comparisons to be made across different studies, and they can be a useful adjunct to more traditional outcome measures such as test statistics and significance levels.

Picturing repeated measures : comments on loftus, morrison, and others

Abstract: Loftus’s (1993b, 1995) recommendation that investigators routinely include plots of appropriate means along with 95% confidence intervals or some other indication of variability has considerable merit, yet we agree with Morrison and Weaver (1995) that such plots can supplement but not supplant the usual reporting of analysis of variance results. Providing them may be easier than Loftus and Masson (1994) indicated, especially when error bars are understood as supplemental descriptive devices. We suggest a general, unified approach that applies to the explication of both between- and within-subjects effects. Variability is estimated separately for each group of scores identified as different by analysis because this serves description better. Raw scores are used for between-subjects effects, scores adjusted for between-subjects variability for within-subjects effects. All computations and figures are easily effected using common spreadsheet programs.

RTSYS: A DOS application for the analysis of reaction time data

Abstract: RTSYS is a menu-driven DOS application for the manipulation, analysis, and graphical display of reaction time data. It can be used either in a single-task environment under DOS, with access to a set operating system commands, or as an application under Windows. All functions have context-sensitive help. RTSYS fits the ex-Gaussian distribution to reaction time data without the difficulties usually associated with numerical parameter estimation. Distribution fitting and flexible censoring and rescaling options allow RTSYS to address the problems of reaction time distribution skew and outlying responses with reasonable sample sizes. RTSYS can automatically process multiple input files from experiments with arbitrary designs and produce formatted output of statistics for further processing by graphical and inferential statistical packages. The present article reviews and explains techniques used by RTSYS and provides an overview of the operation of the program.

Detecting group differences in sequential association using sampled permutations: Log odds, kappa, and phi compared

Abstract: When determining whether a particular transition is more characteristic of one group than of another, two things are required: an index associated with the transition of interest and a statistical test that can determine whether group membership systematically affects values for that index. Here the familiar parametrict test is compared with a test based on sampled permutations. Indices considered are the odds and log odds ratio, Yule’sQ, Wampold’s (1989) transformed kappa, and phi. The odds and log odds ratio are monotonically increasing functions of Yule’sQ and so give similar results. Yule’sQ and phi are essentially rank order invariant and usually give similar results. Transformed kappa, however, rank orders subjects somewhat differently than the others; moreover, it appears somewhat biased. With respect to the tests, when subjects are 20 or more it does not matter much whether sampled permutation or parametrict tests are used; both yield essentially the same result. However, when subjects are fewer than 20, or whenever there is any other reason to think that parametric assumptions may not be met, permutation tests are recommended. A computer program that effects such tests is described.

Studying verbal interaction on the Internet: The case of rumor transmission research

Abstract: This paper describes the advantages of computer-mediated communication networks (Internet, Bitnet, and Usenet) in the study of verbal interaction. Research involving observation and analysis of rumor transmission patterns is presented as an illustration. Issues related to the generalizability of findings and the ethics of observational research are also briefly discussed.

Computer-assisted versus paper-and-pencil administration of questionnaires

Abstract: In a field experiment using 95 employees, the results of computer-assisted versus paper-and-pencil administration of questionnaires during computer training were compared. Unlike past research, the computer mode of administration was made as similar as possible, in format, to the paper mode. No differences in means or reliabilities were found between any variables across the two conditions. However, when the correlations were examined, different patterns of relationships were found across the two conditions. Specifically, subjective or affective measures (software efficacy, playfulness, and training reaction) were more highly related when the measures were gathered by computer as opposed to paper-and-pencil. The relationships between subjective measures and more objective or factual measures (experience, performance, training transfer) were not affected. Thus, it appears that, while differences in mode of administration may not be reflected in differences in means, there are differences in nomological validity.

The World-Wide Web as a medium for psychoacoustical demonstrations and experiments: Experience and results

Abstract: The World-Wide Web provides an inviting opportunity to reach large numbers of people, both as an audience for psychoacoustical discussions and demonstrations and as subjects for psychoacoustical experiments. Such use of the Web poses a unique set of challenges. We present the methodologies used to prepare a multimedia primer in auditory perception at McGill University. As well as instructional material, this primer includes acoustical experiments conducted over the Web. We discuss the response and experiences with this site in general and in a particular class situation at Hanover College.

Using Strawberry Tree WorkbenchMac and Workbench PC software for data acquisition and control in the animal learning laboratory

Abstract: Workbench (developed by Strawberry Tree Incorporated) is a commercially available software package for Macintosh or PC which is designed for industrial automation, process control, and data acquisition. Workbench provides a graphical environment in which programs are constructed by joining icons with connecting wires on the computer screen. In recent years, the author and his colleagues have used Workbench extensively to develop programs for the control of experiments in animal learning, psychopharmacology, and behavioral neuroscience. The principal advantage of Workbench is that sophisticated programs can be quickly written and modified by persons with little knowledge of classical computer programming techniques. Programs developed with Workbench provide on-screen charts, alarms, and meters for extensive user feedback during the running of experiments. Workbench operates in conjunction with Strawberry Tree interface cards and terminal panels for Macintosh or PC, allowing an integrated hardware/software package to be bought off the shelf. This article describes the hardware and software elements of Workbench and gives a step by step description of an example WorkbenchMac program for the operant conditioning of laboratory rats.

CGI scripts: Gateways to World-Wide Web power

Abstract: The power of the hypertext-based information presentation system known as the World-Wide Web can be enhanced by scripts based on thecommon gateway interface (CGI) protocol. CGI scripts residing on a Web server permit the execution of computer programs that can perform a wide variety of functions that may be useful to psychologists. Example applications are presented here, along with reference information for potential script developers.

Content analysis in negotiation research : a review and guide

Abstract: Content analysis, a technique in which inferences are derived from the communication of interacting parties, is not utilized enough in mainstream negotiation research. The purpose of the present article is to outline the benefits and limitations inherent in the content analysis technique, to provide a comprehensive review of content analysis systems that have been used in the past, and to evaluate the existing systems in an effort to guide readers in the decision process. This article aids the potential consumer—any person considering the use of content analysis in negotiation research—in making informed choices regarding this technique. Choice among existing systems should be based upon one’s research question and upon accepted standards of quality. A system that is relatively comprehensive, well grounded in theory, and demonstrates acceptable levels of reliability is advocated. Specific recommendations regarding quality systems are provided.

Signal-processing software for teaching and research in psychoacoustics under UNIX and X-Windows

Abstract: A package of software is described that generates, analyzes, stores, and displays sampled waveforms. The package is designed for use under UNIX and includes C source code, UNIX manual pages, and tutorial documents. The programs interact via UNIX pipes using an ASCII-text data format, which enables the user to view the data in numerical form as well as through the use of plotting programs. Among many other functions, the programs can do the following: efficiently generate linearphase FIR filters with arbitrary transfer functions; generate impulse responses for rectangular rooms of specified dimensions; convolve waveforms with each other; perform Fourier transformation and inverse Fourier transformation; filter waveforms in the Fourier domain; filter waveforms according to the peripheral frequency selectivity of the human auditory system; cross-correlate waveforms; autocorrelate waveforms; synthesize complex waveforms, including vowel sounds and white noise. The software can read and write a variety of commonly used waveform file formats. The data can be plotted on an X-Window display using thegnuplot software, which has been included in the package. The complete software package is available via anonymous ftp from ftp.ihr.mrc.ac.uk in ~ftp/pub/johncu/wave.tar.Z

Pupillometry system for use in social psychology

Abstract: It is now relatively easy to implement pupillometry in social psychological research. We describe a system in which a Macintosh computer presents visual and auditory stimuli to subjects while monitoring an infrared pupillometer. The computer records information on subject, task, and pupil diameter into a data file for input into standard statistical analysis programs. Pupil diameter is measured continuously while subjects respond to stimuli that last for several seconds or minutes. A demonstration experiment verifies the usefulness of the system. The ability of the Macintosh computer to easily handle visual and auditory stimuli and to record responses lasting a considerable length of time makes the system well suited for studying pupil responses to complex social stimuli. This system is also well suited for the researcher initiating a research program using pupillometry. Ease of operation makes using a large number of subjects feasible.

Familiarity and relatedness of word meanings: Ratings for 110 homographs

Abstract: Although prior research has provided descriptive statistics for homographic words, most studies have concentrated only on dominance or frequency of meanings. The present study extended such research by examining homograph meanings, particularly subordinate meanings, in finer detail. Common English words (N=110) were rated for meaning familiarity and relatedness among meanings. In a meaning collection task, subjects listed all possible meanings for each word. The number of meanings provided for words varied widely. In a familiarity rating task, other subjects rated each meaning on its familiarity. It was expected (and found) that familiarity ratings would be more sensitive than meaning collection to knowledge of subordinate meanings. In a comparison task, subjects made relatedness judgments for all meaning pairs within each word. The results provide a database of complex relationships among word meanings that can be used to investigate the effects of relatedness and other semantic variables.

An investigation of data collection methods for auditory stimuli : paired comparisons versus a computer sorting task

Abstract: Two experiments were performed to determine whether a computer sorting task could be used to collect data for auditory stimuli. Within each experiment, subjects were assigned to either a paired comparison task or a computer sorting task. For the first experiment, the stimuli were 18 graph representations constructed to vary on three parameters (shape, frequency, and amplitude). The stimuli for the second experiment were 30 sentences produced by actors portraying five emotions (anger, fear, happiness, sadness, and neutral). Multidimensional scaling solutions were produced and comparisons were made between the paired comparison and computer sorting task in each experiment. The results suggest that the computer sorting task is a viable alternative to the paired comparison task traditionally used for the investigation of the perception of auditory stimuli.

Assessing the effectiveness of a multimedia-based lab for upper division psychology students

Abstract: The efficacy of multimedia-based training in producing increased learning was evaluated. Two multimedia software packages were compared with live or videotaped lectures on the same material. Results differed by type of student (low or high initial knowledge) and type of program. Multimedia training programs may need to provide more aid to students with less initial knowledge in the training domain. In addition, the effects of multimedia may be subtle and therefore require rigorous evaluation.

Using the internet to extend training in team problem solving

Abstract: A hybrid training approach, composed of both computer-mediated communication on the Internet and face-to-face meetings, was implemented. The goals were to examine whether such an approach (1) could be used to extend traditional, short-term training, and (2) would be perceived as useful by the trainees. A central element of the approach was thelinchpin expert, a trainer who served as a communication bridge on the Internet between a team of trainers and a team of trainees. A coding system was developed to analyze the content of the Internet messages. Logistic regression analysis revealed that two types of content were related to the trainees’ perceptions that the messages enhanced their expertise in team problem solving: (1) outcome feedback given to a trainee about a specific activity, and (2) the sharing of conceptual information. The trainees perceived face-to-face and computer-mediated communications with the linchpin expert as being important to their development of expertise.

Computer attitudes and the use of computers in psychology courses

Abstract: Students enrolled in four psychology courses in which computers were used for different purposes completed both pre- and postcourse surveys regarding their prior computer experience, their attitudes toward computers, and their locus of control. A fifth psychology course in which computers were not used served as a control. Results showed that participation in the courses that involved computer activities led to more positive attitudes toward computers than did the control condition. In addition, the positive changes in computer attitudes were found to be independent of initial student characteristics and unrelated to course performance. There was also some suggestion that courses that have higher levels of direct involvement with computer applications may lead to the most positive attitude changes.

Creating psychological tutorials on the World-Wide Web

Abstract: The potential impact that the World-Wide Web (WWW) will have on psychology and psychological education extends far beyond serving as a resource for information acquisition. Particularly through the WWW there is the capability to develop interactive teaching resources with integrated multimedia. These resources can take the form of tutorials or quizzes. In the present paper, on-line examples illustrate how these resources can be developed and used.

Internet and the support of psychology education

Abstract: The Computers in Teaching Initiative (CTI) Centre for Psychology has been promoting the use of computers in psychology education for the last 5 years. The advent of the Internet and ubiquitous access to the World-Wide Web has the potential to revolutionize the way the teaching and learning of psychology can be supported. This paper describes how we are using the Web to support psychology education through information dissemination, through the provision of teaching resources, and through facilities for communication.

Completion norms collected from younger and older adults for 198 sentence contexts

Abstract: Completion responses were collected from younger and older adults for 198 highly constrained sentence contexts that were designed to elicit the same response (i.e., the best completion) in the vast majority of subjects. For each context, completions and their respective frequency of occurrence are provided. Overall, individuals of all ages produced highly similar terminal words. Results of formal analyses indicated that greater socioeconomic status and higher levels of education were mildly associated with a greater probability of producing a best completion response. Although increasing age also correlated with greater probability of producing a best completion, this very weak association would not preclude use of these stimuli with a wide age range.

Investigating the human-computer interface using the Datalogger

Abstract: Methods of gathering user input data for investigations into human-computer interaction are considered. These include the use of human monitors, “instrumentation” of computer programs, and the use of “background” keylogging software. The Datalogger is presented as an example of the latter method, which provides a time-stamped record of keypresses and mouse movement and allows the outcomes of user actions to be replayed.