Showing papers in "Educational Psychology Review in 2019"
TL;DR: Cognitive load theory was introduced in the 1980s as an instructional design theory based on several uncontroversial aspects of human cognitive architecture as discussed by the authors, which had a limited impact on the field of instructional design with most instructional design recommendations proceeding as though working memory and long-term memory did not exist.
Abstract: Cognitive load theory was introduced in the 1980s as an instructional design theory based on several uncontroversial aspects of human cognitive architecture. Our knowledge of many of the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory and the relations between them had been well-established for many decades prior to the introduction of the theory. Curiously, this knowledge had had a limited impact on the field of instructional design with most instructional design recommendations proceeding as though working memory and long-term memory did not exist. In contrast, cognitive load theory emphasised that all novel information first is processed by a capacity and duration limited working memory and then stored in an unlimited long-term memory for later use. Once information is stored in long-term memory, the capacity and duration limits of working memory disappear transforming our ability to function. By the late 1990s, sufficient data had been collected using the theory to warrant an extended analysis resulting in the publication of Sweller et al. (Educational Psychology Review, 10, 251–296, 1998). Extensive further theoretical and empirical work have been carried out since that time and this paper is an attempt to summarise the last 20 years of cognitive load theory and to sketch directions for future research.
605 citations
TL;DR: Overall, teacher Big Five domains (except for agreeableness) were positively associated with teacher effectiveness, especially for evaluations of teaching, and teacher emotional stability, extraversion, and conscientiousness were negatively associated with burnout.
Abstract: The question of what makes a good teacher has been asked by practitioners, policymakers, and researchers for decades. However, there is no guiding framework about which qualities are important for teachers. Thus, it is necessary to examine these qualities using a recognized framework and to summarize the previous literature on this topic. We conducted a meta-analysis on the 25 studies (total N = 6294) reporting the relationships between teacher Big Five personality domains (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and emotional stability) and two teacher job-related outcomes (i.e., teacher effectiveness and burnout). Furthermore, the influence of three moderators was assessed, namely, the type of teacher effectiveness measure (i.e., evaluations of teaching, student performance self-efficacy, classroom observation, and academic achievement), source of personality report (i.e., self-report vs other-report), and the instructed educational level (i.e., elementary, secondary, and tertiary). Overall, teacher Big Five domains (except for agreeableness) were positively associated with teacher effectiveness, especially for evaluations of teaching. Furthermore, teacher emotional stability, extraversion, and conscientiousness were negatively associated with burnout. Other-reports of teacher personality were more strongly associated with outcomes than self-reports. There were no differences in the strength of the associations between the educational levels. The need for using common descriptors in teacher research as well as practical implications of the findings for teacher personality measurement is discussed.
159 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, four ways in which emotion may relate to cognitive load during learning are discussed, and they are best understood when taking an interval view of cognitive load, such as when emotion regulation is part of the learning outcomes.
Abstract: We discuss four ways in which emotion may relate to cognitive load during learning. One perspective describes emotions as extraneous cognitive load, competing for the limited resources of working memory by requiring the processing of task-extra or task-irrelevant information. Another perspective shows that encoding, storage, and retrieval of information are affected by emotion even before awareness of the material, and that emotion may directly affect memory by broadening or narrowing cognitive resources, and by mechanisms such as mood-dependent and mood-congruent processing. A third perspective describes how emotion may affect intrinsic cognitive load, such as when emotion regulation is part of the learning outcomes. We also discuss a dual-channel assumption for emotions. A final perspective is that emotion affects motivation, and, in turn, mental effort investment. These four ways of considering emotion as part of CLT are best understood when taking an interval view of cognitive load.
151 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a literature review on the role of school in adolescents' identity development from different research fields and to provide schools and teachers with insights into how adolescents’ identity development can be supported.
Abstract: Schools can play an important role in adolescents’ identity development. To date, research on the role of school in adolescents’ identity development is scattered across research fields that employ different theoretical perspectives on identity. The aim of this literature review was to integrate the findings on the role of school in adolescents’ identity development from different research fields and to provide schools and teachers with insights into how adolescents’ identity development can be supported. Using constant comparative analysis, 111 studies were analyzed. We included articles on personal and social identity and on school-related identity dimensions. Three groups of studies emerged. First, studies on how schools and teachers unintentionally impact adolescents’ identity showed that, at school, messages may unintentionally be communicated to adolescents concerning who they should or can be through differentiation and selection, teaching strategies, teacher expectations, and peer norms. Second, studies on how schools and teachers can intentionally support adolescents’ identity development showed that different types of explorative learning experiences can be organized to support adolescents’ identity development: experiences aimed at exploring new identity positions (in-breadth exploration), further specifying already existing self-understandings (in-depth exploration), and reflecting on self-understandings (reflective exploration). The third group suggests that explorative learning experiences must be meaningful and situated in a supportive classroom climate in order to foster adolescents’ identity development. Together, the existing studies suggest that schools and teachers are often unaware of the many different ways in which they may significantly impact adolescents’ identity development.
113 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a review of the promotion and use of self-regulation learning strategies and suggest that a range of beliefs about learning and SRL strategies limit the promotion of SRL learning strategies by teachers.
Abstract: Contemporary theories of learning and instruction emphasise the importance of students knowing how to effectively regulate their learning. A large body of research indicates that effective regulation of learning is beneficial for achievement. Set against this research are findings showing that the promotion by teachers of strategies for the self-regulation of learning (SRL), and student use of these strategies, is less common than might be expected. We review this research on the promotion and use of SRL strategies and suggest that a range of beliefs about learning and SRL strategies limit the promotion of SRL learning strategies by teachers. This contributes in turn to the lack of knowledge and use of such strategies by students. These beliefs are represented as forming an interrelated system that needs to be made explicit and examined in order to increase the level of SRL strategy promotion and use. Each of the beliefs is described and the paper concludes with discussion of the implications of the review for teacher educators, teachers, students, school leaders, curriculum designers and researchers.
95 citations
TL;DR: The authors argue that curiosity and interest are the concepts that they subjectively construe through this knowledge acquisition process and use this framework to illustrate the importance of process account as an alternative to advance our understanding of curiosity without being troubled by their definitions.
Abstract: Previous studies suggested roles for curiosity and interest in knowledge acquisition and exploration, but there has been a long-standing debate about how to define these concepts and whether they are related or different. In this paper, we address the definition issue by arguing that there is inherent difficulty in defining curiosity and interest, because both curiosity and interest are naive concepts, which are not supposed to have a priori scientific definitions. We present a reward-learning framework of autonomous knowledge acquisition and use this framework to illustrate the importance of process account as an alternative to advance our understanding of curiosity and interest without being troubled by their definitions. The framework centers on the role of rewarding experience associated with knowledge acquisition and learning and posits that the acquisition of new knowledge strengthens the value of further information. Critically, we argue that curiosity and interest are the concepts that they subjectively construe through this knowledge-acquisition process. Finally, we discuss the implications of the reward-learning framework for education and empirical research in educational psychology.
83 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a systematic review aimed to outline and summarize existing research findings on teachers' emotional labor and is supplemented by a meta-analytic investigation on the connection between teachers’ emotional labour and psychological well-being.
Abstract: Emotional labor represents a long-standing area of research that since its initial development by Hochschild (1983) has been increasingly explored to understand why and how teachers manage and express their emotions in class. However, previous studies investigating teachers’ emotional labor have utilized varying conceptual frameworks and have often shown inconsistent effects, particularly concerning deep acting (i.e., the internalization of desired emotions such that expressed emotions are more consistent with experienced emotions). The current systematic review aimed to outline and summarize existing research findings on teachers’ emotional labor and is supplemented by a meta-analytic investigation on the connection between teachers’ emotional labor and psychological well-being. Practical implications, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.
71 citations
TL;DR: In this article, an integrated model of working memory (WM) is proposed to account for individual differences in experience and expertise and parsimoniously explain both recent and historical cognitive load theory findings across domains.
Abstract: Cognitive load theory (CLT) applies what is known about human cognitive architecture to the study of learning and instruction, to generate insights into the characteristics and conditions of effective instruction and learning. Recent developments in CLT suggest that the human motor system plays an important role in cognition and learning; however, it is unclear whether models of working memory (WM) that are typically espoused by CLT researchers can reconcile these novel findings. For instance, often-cited WM models envision separate information processing systems—such as Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) multicomponent model of WM—as a means to interpret modality-specific findings, although possible interactions with the human motor system remain under-explained. In this article, we examine the viability of these models to theoretically integrate recent research findings regarding the human motor system, as well as their ability to explain established CLT effects and other findings. We argue, it is important to explore alternate models of WM that focus on a single and integrated control of attention system that is applied to visual, phonological, embodied, and other sensory and nonsensory information. An integrated model such as this may better account for individual differences in experience and expertise and, parsimoniously, explain both recent and historical CLT findings across domains. To advance this aim, we propose an integrated model of WM that envisions a common and finite attentional resource that can be distributed across multiple modalities. How attention is mobilized and distributed across domains is interdependent, co-reinforcing, and ever-changing based on learners’ prior experience and their immediate cognitive demands. As a consequence, the distribution of attentional focus and WM resources will vary across individuals and tasks, depending on the nature of the specific task being performed; the neurological, developmental, and experiential abilities of the individual; and the current availability of internal and external cognitive resources.
67 citations
TL;DR: This paper found that the relationship between perfectionism and academic achievement is complex with perfectionistic strivings potentially aiding and perfectionistic concerns potentially hindering students' academic achievement, however, these studies have yet to be systematically collated and meta-analysed.
Abstract: Over the past two decades, many studies have examined the relationship between perfectionism and academic achievement. However, these studies have yet to be systematically collated and meta-analysed. The purpose of the present study was to do so. A literature search returned 37 studies (N = 8901) and 156 effect sizes. Random-effects meta-analyses indicated that perfectionistic strivings showed a significant small to medium positive relationship with academic achievement (r+ = .24), whereas perfectionistic concerns showed a significant small negative relationship with academic achievement (r+ = − .08). One moderator of these relationships was the instrument that was used to measure perfectionism. This was particularly the case for perfectionistic concerns. The findings suggest that the relationship between perfectionism and academic achievement is complex with perfectionistic strivings potentially aiding and perfectionistic concerns potentially hindering students’ academic achievement.
66 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that motivational beliefs are an important outcome that results from instruction and consider the implications for the further development of both cognitive load theory and motivational theories through their integration.
Abstract: Research on cognitive load theory (CLT) has focused primarily on identifying the mechanisms and strategies that enhance cognitive learning outcomes. However, CLT researchers have given less attention to the ways in which cognitive load may interact with the motivational and emotional aspects of learning. Motivational beliefs have typically been assumed to be merely a precursor to the cognitive process. This view provides an incomplete picture of the dynamic relationship between cognitive load and motivational beliefs. In this review, we synthesize previous scholarly efforts concerning the motivational effects of anticipated investment of mental effort, new developments in the expectancy-value theory of motivation, and recent findings implicating cognitive load in the formulation of motivational beliefs. By conceptualizing cognitive load as motivational cost, we argue that motivational beliefs are an important outcome that results from instruction. We examine recent empirical evidence supporting this proposition and consider the implications for the further development of both CLT and motivational theories through their integration.
66 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a meta-analysis of 78 studies examined the effect of negative feedback on intrinsic motivation in both child and adult samples, and found that negative feedback had no effect on the intrinsic motivation when compared to neutral or no feedback.
Abstract: The most prominent view in psychological theory has been that negative feedback should generally have a detrimental impact on intrinsic motivation. Competing perspectives and caveats on this view have suggested that negative feedback may sometimes have neutral or even positive effects. This meta-analysis of 78 studies examined the effect of negative feedback on intrinsic motivation in both child and adult samples. Results indicated that negative feedback had no effect on intrinsic motivation when compared to neutral or no feedback. When compared to positive feedback, negative feedback decreased intrinsic motivation. Moderator tests revealed that the effect of negative feedback seemed to be less demotivating when (a) the feedback statement included instructional details on how to improve, (b) criterion-based standards were used to provide feedback, and (c) feedback was delivered in-person. Implications for future research and applications to real-world settings are discussed.
TL;DR: The segmenting effect states that people learn better when multimedia instructions are presented in (meaningful and coherent) learner-paced segments, rather than as continuous units as mentioned in this paper, which is confirmed for a system-paced segmentation.
Abstract: The segmenting effect states that people learn better when multimedia instructions are presented in (meaningful and coherent) learner-paced segments, rather than as continuous units. This meta-analysis contains 56 investigations including 88 pairwise comparisons and reveals a significant segmenting effect with small to medium effects for retention and transfer performance. Segmentation also reduces the overall cognitive load and increases learning time. These four effects are confirmed for a system-paced segmentation. The meta-analysis tests different explanations for the segmenting effect that concern facilitating chunking and structuring due to segmenting the multimedia instruction by the instructional designer, providing more time for processing the instruction and allowing the learners to adapt the presentation pace to their individual needs. Moderation analyses indicate that learners with high prior knowledge benefitted more from segmenting instructional material than learners with no or low prior knowledge in terms of retention performance.
TL;DR: This article conducted a meta-analysis of randomized experiments in which groups of students learning through dynamic visualizations were compared to groups receiving static visualizations and found that gender was influential: the dynamic visualisations were more effective on samples with less females and more males.
Abstract: Studies comparing the instructional effectiveness of dynamic versus static visualizations have produced mixed results. In this work, we investigated whether gender imbalance in the participant samples of these studies may have contributed to the mixed results. We conducted a meta-analysis of randomized experiments in which groups of students learning through dynamic visualizations were compared to groups receiving static visualizations. Our sample focused on tasks that could be categorized as either biologically secondary tasks (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics: STEM) or biologically primary tasks (manipulative–procedural). The meta-analysis of 46 studies (82 effect sizes and 5474 participants) revealed an overall small-sized effect (g+ = 0.23) showing that dynamic visualizations were more effective than static visualizations. Regarding potential moderators, we observed that gender was influential: the dynamic visualizations were more effective on samples with less females and more males (g+ = 0.36). We also observed that educational level, learning domain, media compared, and reporting reliability measures moderated the results. We concluded that because many visualization studies have used samples with a gender imbalance, this may be a significant factor in explaining why instructional dynamic and static visualizations seem to vary in their effectiveness. Our findings also support considering the gender variable in research about cognitive load theory and instructional visualizations.
TL;DR: This paper conducted a systematic, thematic analysis of the relationship between visuospatial working memory (VSWM) and mathematics performance and found that the overall effect size is positive, demonstrating a positive association between VSWM and mathematics.
Abstract: The body of research surrounding the relationship between visuospatial working memory (VSWM) and mathematics performance remains in its infancy. However, it is an area generating increasing interest as the performance of school leavers comes under constant scrutiny. In order to develop a coherent understanding of the literature to date, all available literature reporting on the relationship between VSWM and mathematics performance was included in a systematic, thematic analysis of effect sizes. Results show a significant influence of the use of a standardised mathematics measure, however, no influence of the type of VSWM or mathematics being assessed, on the effect sizes generated. Crucially, the overall effect size is positive, demonstrating a positive association between VSWM and mathematics performance. The greatest implications of the review are on researchers investigating the relationship between VSWM and mathematics performance. The review also highlights as yet under-researched areas with scope for future research.
TL;DR: This paper conducted a direct replication of Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) and extended their work by including groups who took notes using eWriters and who did not take notes, finding that performance did not consistently differ between any groups.
Abstract: Many students use laptops to take notes in classes, but does using them impact later test performance? In a high-profile investigation comparing note-taking writing on paper versus typing on a laptop keyboard, Mueller and Oppenheimer (Psychological Science, 25, 1159–1168, 2014) concluded that taking notes by longhand is superior. We conducted a direct replication of Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) and extended their work by including groups who took notes using eWriters and who did not take notes. Some trends suggested longhand superiority; however, performance did not consistently differ between any groups (experiments 1 and 2), including a group who did not take notes (experiment 2). Group differences were further decreased after students studied their notes (experiment 2). A meta-analysis (combining direct replications) of test performance revealed small (nonsignificant) effects favoring longhand. Based on the present outcomes and other available evidence, concluding which method is superior for improving the functions of note-taking seems premature.
TL;DR: In this article, the relation between interest and curiosity is discussed, and the scientific importance of making a distinction between the two concepts is discussed as well as how earlier and later phases of developing interest are related to curiosity.
Abstract: In order to consider the relation between interest and curiosity, we first review various points of view on this issue, and discuss the scientific importance of making a distinction between the two concepts. Next, we explain that interest defined as a psychological state and as a cognitive and motivational variable can be supported to develop. Furthermore, the content-specific development of interest provides a different type of information search than curiosity, defined as the motivation to close a knowledge gap driven by uncertainty. We also discuss how earlier and later phases of developing interest are related to curiosity. More specifically, we suggest that (a) once curiosity is resolved, it may not result in any further engagement, or it may trigger a situational interest that could develop, and (b) when an existing, more developed interest initiates, supports or is related to a particular instance of triggered curiosity, continued engagement (and information search) is likely. In concluding, we point to needed neuroscientific research that could contribute to further clarifying the relation between interest and curiosity. This information is as important to research, as it is to practice.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that humans have evolved to be deeply curious to adapt to a world of uncertainty and that curiosity can be likened to an appetite for knowledge which can be satiated by specific information that fills a knowledge gap.
Abstract: This review aims to clarify four perennial issues surrounding the concept of curiosity: its nature, conceptual distinction from situational interest, types, and educational implications. First, we argue that humans have evolved to be deeply curious to adapt to a world of uncertainty. Curiosity can be likened to an appetite for knowledge which can be satiated by specific information that fills a knowledge gap. Information-seeking behavior is determined by the expected availability of information using a cost–benefit analysis. Second, although curiosity and situational interest are often considered synonyms, we show that the two constructs differ in terms of their theoretical account, biological underpinnings, triggering factors, emotional valence, specificity of information searches, and relationship with individual interest. Unlike situational interest, which is the positive affect triggered by a wide variety of sources (e.g., autonomy, relatedness, competence), curiosity is an aversive cognitive state caused by an information gap. Situational interest follows the hedonic principle and is associated with opioid liking system in the brain. Curiosity, by contrast, is understood through drive theory and involves dopaminergic wanting system. Situational interest drives individuals to approach the stimulus while curiosity promotes the active seeking of missing information. Iterative cycles of curiosity resolution can lead to the development of individual interest. Third, we introduce two types of curiosity: curiosity for what (forward curiosity) is provoked by unpredictability, whereas curiosity for why (backward curiosity) arises from incongruity. Finally, driven by the unique characteristics of curiosity, we suggest ways to design learning environment that can nurture students’ curiosity.
TL;DR: In this paper, a review of prior research investigates which learning processes may explain how drawing activities facilitate learning of STEM content and suggests practical recommendations on how to effectively implement drawing activities that help students learn STEM content.
Abstract: Recent research suggests that drawing activities can help students learn concepts in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines. In particular, drawing activities, which mimic the practices of STEM professionals, can help students engage with visual-spatial content. However, prior work has also shown that students struggle to learn from drawing activities. One major issue is that the learning processes underlying the effects of drawing activities are mostly unknown, and therefore, it is unclear how best to design effective drawing activities in STEM learning environments. To address this gap, our review of prior research investigates which learning processes may explain how drawing activities facilitate learning of STEM content. Specifically, we reviewed prior research across cognitive and sociocultural theoretical perspectives. We identified six learning processes fostered by drawing activities. Each learning process describes how drawing can change the way students interact with the content. Our review shows how instructional support for drawing activities that targets each learning process can enhance learning. Our findings have theoretical implications regarding how drawing activities have been studied and yield open questions about the mechanisms accounting for the effects of drawing activities on students’ learning in STEM disciplines. Further, our findings suggest practical recommendations on how to effectively implement drawing activities that help students learn STEM content.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focused on embodied learning environments supporting students' understanding of graphing change in the context of modeling motion, and found that learning environments making use of students' own motion immediately linked to its representation were most effective in terms of learning outcomes.
Abstract: Embodied learning environments have a substantial share in teaching interventions and research for enhancing learning in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education. In these learning environments, students’ bodily experiences are an essential part of the learning activities and hence, of the learning. In this systematic review, we focused on embodied learning environments supporting students’ understanding of graphing change in the context of modeling motion. Our goal was to deepen the theoretical understanding of what aspects of these embodied learning environments are important for teaching and learning. We specified four embodied configurations by juxtaposing embodied learning environments on the degree of bodily involvement (own and others/objects’ motion) and immediacy (immediate and non-immediate) resulting in four classes of embodied learning environments. Our review included 44 articles (comprising 62 learning environments) and uncovered eight mediating factors, as described by the authors of the reviewed articles: real-world context, multimodality, linking motion to graph, multiple representations, semiotics, student control, attention capturing, and cognitive conflict. Different combinations of mediating factors were identified in each class of embodied learning environments. Additionally, we found that learning environments making use of students’ own motion immediately linked to its representation were most effective in terms of learning outcomes. Implications of this review for future research and the design of embodied learning environments are discussed.
TL;DR: A review of 11 empirical research studies reveals that the predominant psychometric approach is Rasch modeling with a focus on itemfit statistics, applied in a way strongly similar to practices in national and international large-scale educational assessment programs as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Psychometric modeling has become a frequently used statistical tool in research on scientific reasoning. We review psychometric modeling practices in this field, including model choice, model testing, and researchers’ inferences based on their psychometric practices. A review of 11 empirical research studies reveals that the predominant psychometric approach is Rasch modeling with a focus on itemfit statistics, applied in a way strongly similar to practices in national and international large-scale educational assessment programs. This approach is common in the educational assessment community and rooted in subtle philosophical views on measurement. However, we find that based on this approach, researchers tend to draw interpretations that are not within the inferential domain of this specific approach and not in accordance with the related practices and inferential purposes. In some of the reviewed articles, researchers put emphasis on item infit statistics for dimensionality assessment. Item infit statistics, however, cannot be regarded as a valid indicator of the dimensionality of scientific reasoning. Using simulations as illustration, we argue that this practice is limited in delivering psychological insights; in fact, various recent inferences about the structure, cognitive basis, and correlates of scientific reasoning might be unwarranted. In order to harness its full potential, we make suggestions towards adjusting psychometric modeling practices to the psychological and educational questions at hand.
TL;DR: In this paper, a systematic review of the existing literature on students' perceptions toward the use of tablets in primary and secondary schools is presented, highlighting the complementarity of quantitative and qualitative methods.
Abstract: There is growing interest in the use of tablets in classrooms, and educational policies from different countries promote their integration. Previous literature reviews were conducted on the effects of the use of tablets in learning. There is, however, a strong need to understand how students perceive the use of tablets for learning as these perceptions determine the adoption, use and, thereby, the value of tablets for learning. Thus, the purpose of this article is to systematically review the existing literature on students’ perceptions toward the use of tablets in primary and secondary schools. The literature search selected 41 relevant qualitative and quantitative studies meeting our inclusion criteria. Their results and methodological aspects were analyzed and discussed. Overall, the results showed that students have rather good perceptions of the use of tablets, though some limitations were highlighted, particularly in the qualitative studies. Moreover, this review highlighted the complementarity of quantitative and qualitative methods. Finally, educational implications and recommendations for further research were discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors define curiosity as a psychological state that includes three components: recognition of an information gap, anticipation that it may be possible to close it, and an intrinsically motivated desire to do so.
Abstract: Curiosity and interest are at the core of human inquiry. However, controversies remain about how best to conceptualize these constructs. I propose to derive definitions by attending to the common core of typical usages of the two terms. Using this approach, curiosity can be defined as a psychological state that includes three components: recognition of an information gap, anticipation that it may be possible to close it, and an intrinsically motivated desire to do so. Interest can be more broadly defined as intrinsically motivated engagement with any specific object, content, or activity. The two definitions imply that curiosity is a special case of interest. Furthermore, I propose to use the state-trait distinction to distinguish between momentary and enduring forms of both curiosity and interest, which makes it possible to treat state versus trait curiosity and interest in conceptually parallel ways. To make further progress in understanding the two constructs, research is needed that investigates their affective dynamics and their generalizability across age-related and socio-cultural contexts.
TL;DR: The authors found that increased working memory depletion immediately following learning with a test contributes to the failure to obtain a testing effect using immediate tests, and that the weakening may be due to differential working memory resource depletion on immediate post-tests with resource recovery due to rest following a delayed post test.
Abstract: The testing effect occurs when students, given information to learn and then practice during a test, perform better on a subsequent content post-test than students who restudy the information as a substitute for the practice test. The effect is often weaker or reversed if immediate rather than delayed post-tests are used. The weakening may be due to differential working memory resource depletion on immediate post-tests with resource recovery due to rest following a delayed post-test. In three experiments, we compared an immediate post-test with a 1-week delayed post-test. Experiment 1 required the students to construct a puzzle poem and found working memory resource depletion occurred immediately after learning compared to a delay. Experiment 2 using text-based material tapping lower element interactivity information and experiment 3, again using a puzzle poem, compared study-only with the study and test groups. A disordinal interaction was obtained in both experiments with the study-only groups superior to the study–test groups on immediate content post-tests and reverse results on delayed tests. Working memory capacity tests indicated a non-significant increase in capacity after a delay compared to immediately after learning with medium size effects, but in experiment 2, there were no working memory differences between the study-only and the study and test groups. Experiment 3 increased element interactivity and found an increased memory capacity for the study-only group compared to the study and test group with the immediate test contributing more of the difference than the delayed test. It was concluded that increased working memory depletion immediately following learning with a test contributes to the failure to obtain a testing effect using immediate tests.
TL;DR: This paper investigated the variability effect that occurs when learners’ exposure to highly variable tasks results in superior test performance and found that more experienced learners had sufficient available working memory capacity to process high variability information while less experienced learners were overwhelmed by high variability and learned more using low variability information.
Abstract: Based on cognitive load theory, this paper reports on two experiments investigating the variability effect that occurs when learners’ exposure to highly variable tasks results in superior test performance. It was hypothesised that the effect was more likely to occur using high rather than low levels of guidance and testing more knowledgeable than less knowledgeable learners. Experiment 1, which tested 103 adults studying pre-university mathematics, showed no interaction between levels of variability (high vs. low) and levels of instructional guidance (worked examples vs. unguided problem solving). The significant main effect of variability indicated a variability effect regardless of levels of instructional guidance. Experiment 2, which tested another group of 56 adults enrolled in the same mathematics program, showed an interaction between levels of variability (high vs. low) and levels of learner expertise (novices vs. experts). More experienced learners learned more from high rather than low variability tasks demonstrating the variability effect, while less experienced learners learned more from low rather than high variability tasks demonstrating a reverse variability effect. It was suggested that more experienced learners had sufficient available working memory capacity to process high variability information while less experienced learners were overwhelmed by high variability and learned more using low variability information. Subjective ratings of difficulty supported the assumptions based on cognitive load theory. The major educational implication is that learners should initially be presented with low variability or easier tasks, and as they gain more experience in the task domain, variability or task difficulty should increase.
TL;DR: Montessori's effectiveness, its alignment with educational psychology research, and its broad scope have been discussed in this paper, concluding with speculation as to why it is also shunned and what might be a consequence: frequent poor implementation.
Abstract: School reform is an important national and international concern. The Montessori alternative school system is unique in that it is well-aligned with the science of healthy development and learning, has strong social–emotional and academic outcomes, is virtually unchanged in over a century, can be applied across all the school years, and still attracts considerable attention and allegiance—yet it remains “on the margins” (Whitescarver and Cossentino Teachers College Record, 110, 2571–2600, 2008) of the bulwark educational system, as often shunned as admired. Why does Montessori persist (and increasingly in the public sector) and why does it elicit such sharply contrasting reactions? This article reviews several reasons why it is admired, such as evidence of Montessori’s effectiveness, its alignment with educational psychology research, and its broad scope. The points of research alignment are presented as natural corollaries of Montessori’s central premise: independence, or self-determination. After discussing these extrinsic and intrinsic reasons why Montessori is admired, the article concludes with speculation as to why it is also shunned—namely its incommensurability with conventional education culture and what might be a consequence: frequent poor implementation. The incommensurability of evidence-based alternatives with the conventional system is also posed as a reason for radical school reform.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors put forward a conceptualization of curiosity as domain-specific and examined how the components of curiosity develop within one academic domain: mathematics, and they juxtaposed conceptualizations of epistemic curiosity with literature related to the development of other epistemic factors (i.e., knowledge, epistemic beliefs) in mathematics.
Abstract: Epistemic curiosity is a desire for knowledge accompanied by positive emotions, increased arousal, and exploratory behavior (Grossnickle, Educational Psychology Review, 28(1), 23–60, 2016). Although curiosity has typically been characterized as a domain-general construct, domain-general conceptualizations do not acknowledge systematic changes in an individuals’ development (e.g., domain knowledge) as they advance within a domain. Moreover, a domain-general conceptualization of curiosity stands in direct contrast to research on interest, given that interest is typically described as domain-specific (e.g., interest for mathematics). Without a domain-specific conceptualization of curiosity as it relates to development within academic domains, comparisons between curiosity and interest will remain muddled. In the present theoretical review, we put forward a conceptualization of curiosity as domain-specific and examine how the components of curiosity develop within one academic domain: mathematics. In doing so, we juxtapose conceptualizations of epistemic curiosity with literature related to the development of other epistemic factors (i.e., knowledge, epistemic beliefs) in mathematics. Specifically, we build on the knowledge gap theories of epistemic curiosity (Litman, Personality and Individual Differences, 48(4), 397–410, 2010; Loewenstein, Psychological Bulletin, 116(1), 75–98, 1994) to consider developmental shifts in (a) knowledge gaps, (b) heightened arousal, and (c) exploratory behaviors within the domain of mathematics. Understanding the domain-specific and developmental nature of curiosity is critical for distinguishing curiosity from interest and for supporting motivation within mathematics classrooms.
TL;DR: This paper explored the relation between curiosity and interest by examining how in-the-moment experiences of curiosity and of interest emerge out of exploratory behavior observed in infancy and early childhood.
Abstract: This article explores the relation between curiosity and interest by examining how in-the-moment experiences of curiosity and of interest emerge out of exploratory behavior observed in infancy and early childhood. As experiential states, there is little to distinguish curiosity and interest. Descriptions of developing interests that refer to “curiosity questions” and “curiosity episodes,” suggest that experiential states of curiosity and interest are intertwined in interest development. However, when the focus is on individual differences, curiosity and interest diverge. Trait curiosity is a relatively stable personality trait, the propensity to feel curious in contexts high in collative variability. On the other hand, interests or individual interest refer to a disposition or predisposition to engage and re-engage with contents of a specific domain. It is suggested that further insight into the significance of curiosity and interest for educational practice will come from expanding real-time analyses of the quality of the experiential states they subsume.
TL;DR: In this paper, a systematic analysis of the psychological and educational databases has provided 88 publications on the topic of the relationship between the physical environment of early childhood education and care services and the psychological development of children.
Abstract: In relation to the growing attention to the quality of physical space in early childhood education and care (ECEC), the present scoping review aims to define the state of the art regarding the relationship between the physical environment of ECEC services and the psychological development of children. After 50 years of research in this field, this contribution should promote understanding of what scientific studies have achieved so far, in order to prompt useful reflections for education professionals and identify future directions of research. A systematic analysis of the psychological and educational databases has provided 88 publications on the topic. The contents of the studies identified refer to two main thematic areas: “perception of physical environment,” which includes both children’s and adults’ perceptions, and “relation between physical environment and child development,” which includes behavioral, cognitive, and emotional aspects of development. Although the studies included have used several methods and investigated different aspects of environment, systematic analysis has enabled the identification of some topics that recur among the studies, such as the significance of adults’ awareness about their perception of space, the importance of a child-centered approach, and the relevance of the participation of stakeholders in the design processes. Finally, these main findings are summarized and reflections on future conceptual and methodological orientations in the field are discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an interview with John Sweller, Fred Paas, and Jeroen van Merrienboer about cognitive load theory, focusing on challenges and opportunities of cognitive load theories and associated instructional design research.
Abstract: This manuscript presents an interview with John Sweller, Fred Paas, and Jeroen van Merrienboer about cognitive load theory. It presents the views of these main founders of the theory on the progress from the first major publication on the theory in 1998 (Sweller, Van Merrienboer, & Paas, Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251–296, 1998) to the current publication, 20 years later in 2018 (Sweller, Van Merrienboer, & Paas, Educational Psychology Review, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09465-5
, 2019). More specifically, the interview focuses on challenges and opportunities of cognitive load theory and the associated instructional design research, the role of measurement of cognitive load and mental efficiency, as well as the instructional control of cognitive load in the cognitive load research. The interview is concluded with suggestions and advice for young researchers.
TL;DR: This paper investigated whether tracing lesson materials (about the water cycle) presented on A4 pieces of paper in an initial phase, then on an A1 poster in a subsequent phase, would affect primary school students' reports of intrinsic versus extraneous cognitive load, as well as recall and transfer test performance.
Abstract: Cognitive load theory has incorporated evolutionary perspectives to consider how biologically primary knowledge (such as physical movement and pointing), acquired through evolutionary processes, might support the acquisition of biologically secondary knowledge (such as reading or writing), requiring explicit teaching. Tracing (a physical movement) against a surface with the index finger may be one form of biologically primary knowledge that can enhance learning biologically secondary knowledge. We investigated whether tracing lesson materials (about the water cycle) presented on A4 pieces of paper in an initial phase, then on an A1 poster in a subsequent phase, would affect primary school students’ reports of intrinsic versus extraneous cognitive load, as well as recall and transfer test performance. Students who traced while studying reported lower extraneous cognitive load than those who simply studied and scored higher on subsequent recall and transfer tests. Considerations for instructional designers, educators and researchers are discussed.