Showing papers in "Measurement Science and Technology in 2015"

PIV uncertainty quantification from correlation statistics

Abstract: The uncertainty of a PIV displacement field is estimated using a generic post-processing method based on statistical analysis of the correlation process using differences in the intensity pattern in the two images. First the second image is dewarped back onto the first one using the computed displacement field which provides two almost perfectly matching images. Differences are analyzed regarding the effect of shifting the peak of the correlation function. A relationship is derived between the standard deviation of intensity differences in each interrogation window and the expected asymmetry of the correlation peak, which is then converted to the uncertainty of a displacement vector. This procedure is tested with synthetic data for various types of noise and experimental conditions (pixel noise, out-of-plane motion, seeding density, particle image size, etc) and is shown to provide an accurate estimate of the true error.

Rolling bearing fault diagnosis using an optimization deep belief network

Abstract: The vibration signals measured from a rolling bearing are usually affected by the variable operating conditions and background noise which lead to the diversity and complexity of the vibration signal characteristics, and it is a challenge to effectively identify the rolling bearing faults from such vibration signals with no further fault information. In this paper, a novel optimization deep belief network (DBN) is proposed for rolling bearing fault diagnosis. Stochastic gradient descent is used to efficiently fine-tune all the connection weights after the pre-training of restricted Boltzmann machines (RBMs) based on the energy functions, and the classification accuracy of the DBN is improved. Particle swarm is further used to decide the optimal structure of the trained DBN, and the optimization DBN is designed. The proposed method is applied to analyze the simulation signal and experimental signal of a rolling bearing. The results confirm that the proposed method is more accurate and robust than other intelligent methods.

Spray measurement technology: a review

Abstract: Sprays are among the most intellectually challenging and practically important topics in fluid mechanics. This paper reviews needs, milestones, challenges, and a broad array of techniques for spray measurement. In addition, tabular summaries provide cross-referenced entry points to the vast literature by organizing over 300 citations according to key spray phenomena, physical parameters and measurement techniques for each of the principal spray regions (nozzle internal flow, near-field spray-formation region, far-field developed spray, and spray-wall interaction). The article closes with perspectives on some current issues in spray research, including the cost and complexity of apparatus for spray physics and spray engineering, the need for simultaneous diagnostic measurements under application-relevant conditions, and the effective comparison of spray measurements and numerical simulations.

Collaborative framework for PIV uncertainty quantification: comparative assessment of methods

Abstract: A posteriori uncertainty quantification of particle image velocimetry (PIV) data is essential to obtain accurate estimates of the uncertainty associated with a given experiment. This is particularly relevant when measurements are used to validate computational models or in design and decision processes. In spite of the importance of the subject, the first PIV uncertainty quantification (PIV-UQ) methods have been developed only in the last three years. The present work is a comparative assessment of four approaches recently proposed in the literature: the uncertainty surface method (Timmins et al 2012), the particle disparity approach (Sciacchitano et al 2013), the peak ratio criterion (Charonko and Vlachos 2013) and the correlation statistics method (Wieneke 2015). The analysis is based upon experiments conducted for this specific purpose, where several measurement techniques are employed simultaneously. The performances of the above approaches are surveyed across different measurement conditions and flow regimes.

Volumetric particle image velocimetry with a single plenoptic camera

Abstract: A novel three-dimensional (3D), three-component (3C) particle image velocimetry (PIV) technique based on volume illumination and light field imaging with a single plenoptic camera is described. A plenoptic camera uses a densely packed microlens array mounted near a high resolution image sensor to sample the spatial and angular distribution of light collected by the camera. The multiplicative algebraic reconstruction technique (MART) computed tomography algorithm is used to reconstruct a volumetric intensity field from individual snapshots and a cross-correlation algorithm is used to estimate the velocity field from a pair of reconstructed particle volumes. This work provides an introduction to the basic concepts of light field imaging with a plenoptic camera and describes the unique implementation of MART in the context of plenoptic image data for 3D/3C PIV measurements. Simulations of a plenoptic camera using geometric optics are used to generate synthetic plenoptic particle images, which are subsequently used to estimate the quality of particle volume reconstructions at various particle number densities. 3D reconstructions using this method produce reconstructed particles that are elongated by a factor of approximately 4 along the optical axis of the camera. A simulated 3D Gaussian vortex is used to test the capability of single camera plenoptic PIV to produce a 3D/3C vector field, where it was found that lateral displacements could be measured to approximately 0.2 voxel accuracy in the lateral direction and 1 voxel in the depth direction over a voxel volume. The feasibility of the technique is demonstrated experimentally using a home-built plenoptic camera based on a 16-megapixel interline CCD camera and a array of microlenses and a pulsed Nd:YAG laser. 3D/3C measurements were performed in the wake of a low Reynolds number circular cylinder and compared with measurements made using a conventional 2D/2C PIV system. Overall, single camera plenoptic PIV is shown to be a viable 3D/3C velocimetry technique.

Fibre Bragg grating sensors in polymer optical fibres

Abstract: This review paper summarises the current state of research into polymer optical fibre grating sensors. The properties of polymers are explored to identify situations where polymers offer potential advantages over more conventional silica fibre sensing technology. Photosensitivity is discussed and the sensitivities of polymer fibre gratings to strain, temperature and water are described. Finally, applications are reported which utilise the unique properties of polymer fibres.

Diagnostics for characterisation of plasma actuators

Abstract: The popularity of plasma actuators as flow control devices has sparked a flurry of diagnostic efforts towards their characterisation. This review article presents an overview of experimental investigations employing diagnostic techniques specifically aimed at AC dielectric barrier discharge, DC corona and nanosecond pulse plasma actuators. Mechanical, thermal and electrical characterisation techniques are treated. Various techniques for the measurement of induced velocity, body force, heating effects, voltage, current, power and discharge morphology are presented and common issues and challenges are described. The final part of this report addresses the effect of ambient conditions on the performance of plasma actuators.

SVD principle analysis and fault diagnosis for bearings based on the correlation coefficient

Abstract: Aiming at solving the existing sharp problems by using singular value decomposition (SVD) in the fault diagnosis of rolling bearings, such as the determination of the delay step k for creating the Hankel matrix and selection of effective singular values, the present study proposes a novel adaptive SVD method for fault feature detection based on the correlation coefficient by analyzing the principles of the SVD method. This proposed method achieves not only the optimal determination of the delay step k by means of the absolute value of the autocorrelation function sequence of the collected vibration signal, but also the adaptive selection of effective singular values using the index corresponding to useful component signals including weak fault information to detect weak fault signals for rolling bearings, especially weak impulse signals. The effectiveness of this method has been verified by contrastive results between the proposed method and traditional SVD, even using the wavelet-based method through simulated experiments. Finally, the proposed method has been applied to fault diagnosis for a deep-groove ball bearing in which a single point fault located on either the inner or outer race of rolling bearings is obtained successfully. Therefore, it can be stated that the proposed method is of great practical value in engineering applications.

Towards geometrical calibration of x-ray computed tomography systems—a review

Abstract: Industrial x-ray computed tomography (XCT) is seen as a potentially effective tool for the industrial inspection of complex parts. In particular, XCT is an attractive solution for the measurement of internal geometries, which are inaccessible by conventional coordinate measuring systems. While the technology is available and the benefits are recognized, methods to establish the measurement assurance of XCT systems are lacking. More specifically, the assessment of measurement uncertainty and the subsequent establishment of measurement traceability is a largely unknown process. This paper is a review of research that contributes to the development of a geometrical calibration procedure for XCT systems. A brief introduction to the geometry of cone-beam tomography systems is given, after which the geometrical influence factors are outlined. Mathematical measurement models play a significant role in understanding how geometrical offsets and misalignments contribute to error in measurements; therefore, the application of mathematical models in simulating geometrical errors is discussed and the corresponding literature is presented. Then, the various methods that have been developed to measure certain geometrical errors are reviewed. The findings from this review are discussed and suggestions are provided for future work towards the development of a comprehensive and practical geometrical calibration procedure.

Collaborative framework for PIV uncertainty quantification: the experimental database

Abstract: The uncertainty quantification of particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements has recently become a topic of great interest as shown by the recent appearance of several different methods within the past few years. These approaches have different working principles, merits and limitations, which have been speculated upon in subsequent studies. This paper reports a unique experiment that has been performed specifically to test the efficacy of PIV uncertainty methods. The case of a rectangular jet, as previously studied by Timmins et al (2012) and Wilson and Smith (2013b), is used. The novel aspect of the experiment is simultaneous velocity measurements using two different time-resolved PIV systems and a hot-wire anemometry (HWA) system. The first PIV system, called the PIV measurement system (?PIV-MS?), is intended for nominal measurements of which the uncertainty is to be evaluated. It is based on a single camera and features a dynamic velocity range (DVR) representative of typical PIV experiments. The second PIV system, called the ?PIV-HDR? (high dynamic range) system, features a significantly higher DVR obtained with a higher digital imaging resolution. The hot-wire is placed in close proximity to the PIV measurement domain. The three measurement systems were carefully set to simultaneously measure the flow velocity at the same time and location. The comparison between the PIV-HDR system and the HWA provides an estimate of the measurement precision of the reference velocity for evaluation of the instantaneous error in the measurement system. The discrepancy between the PIV-MS and the reference data provides the measurement error, which is later used to assess the different uncertainty quantification methods proposed in the literature. A detailed comparison of the uncertainty estimation methods based on the present datasets is presented in a second paper from Sciacchitano et al (2015). Furthermore, this database offers the potential to be used for comparison of the measurement accuracy of existing or newly developed PIV interrogation algorithms. The database is publicly available on the website www.piv.de/uncertainty.

Combined GPS + BDS for short to long baseline RTK positioning

Abstract: The BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) has become fully operational in the Asia-Pacific region and it is of importance to evaluate what BDS brings when combined with the Global Positioning System (GPS). In this contribution we will look at the short, medium and long single-baseline real-time kinematic (RTK) positioning performance. Short baseline refers to when the distance between the two receivers is at most a few kilometers so that the relative slant ionospheric and tropospheric delays can be assumed absent, whereas with medium baseline we refer to when the uncertainty of these ionospheric delays can reliably be modeled as a function of the baseline length. With long baseline we refer to the necessity to parameterize the ionospheric delays and (wet) Zenith Tropospheric Delay (ZTD) as completely unknown. The GNSS real data are collected in Perth, Australia. It will be shown that combining the two systems allows for the use of higher than customary elevation cut-off angles. This can be of particular benefit in environments with restricted satellite visibility such as in open pit mines or urban canyons.

A method to transfer speckle patterns for digital image correlation

Abstract: A simple and repeatable speckle creation method based on water transfer printing (WTP) is proposed to reduce artificial measurement error for digital image correlation (DIC). This technique requires water, brush, and a piece of transfer paper that is made of prefabricated decal paper, a protected sheet, and printed speckle patterns. The speckle patterns are generated and optimized via computer simulations, and then printed on the decal paper. During the experiments, operators can moisten the basement with water and the brush, so that digital patterns can be simply transferred to the carriers' surfaces. Tensile experiments with an extended three-dimensional (3D) DIC system are performed to test and verify the validity of WTP patterns. It is shown that by comparing with a strain gage, the strain error is less than 50μe in a uniform tensile test. From five carbon steel tensile experiments, Luders bands in both WTP patterns and spray paint patterns are demonstrated to propagate symmetrically. In the necking part where the strain is up to 66%, WTP patterns are proved to adhere to the specimens well. Hence, WTP patterns are capable of maintaining coherence and adherence to the specimen surface. The transfer paper, working as the role of strain gage in the electrometric method, will contribute to speckle creation.

The errors in digital image correlation due to overmatched shape functions

Abstract: In subset-based digital image correlation (DIC), a proper shape function must be chosen to approximate the underlying displacement field of the target subsets to ensure an accurate subset matching. Shape functions with varying orders of Taylor's expansions (e.g. zero-, first- and second-order) have been proposed. However, since the actual deformation occurring in the deformed subsets cannot be known a priori in most practical measurements, problems of mismatch (undermatched or overmatched) inevitably arise, which lead to additional errors in the measurement displacements. Although systematic errors due to undermatched shape functions have been thoroughly studied, the displacement errors associated with overmatched shape functions are still not sufficiently clear to us. In this paper, the systematic and random errors caused by the use of overmatched shape functions are first examined using numerical translation tests with precisely controlled subpixel motions. The results reveal that overmatched shape functions will not introduce additional systematic error but can induce increased random error, while the latter is negligibly small when a larger subset is used. Thus, it can be made explicit that second-order shape functions, capable of depicting more complex local deformation, can be used for practical DIC applications as a default, because this effectively eliminates the possible systematic error associated with the use of first-order shape functions, while the possibly increased random errors are small enough if using a relatively larger subset. Two sets of images with inhomogeneous deformation are also used to verify the accuracy of DIC measurements using second-order shape functions.

Pulse-Burst PIV in a High-Speed Wind Tunnel.

Abstract: In recent years, time-resolved particle image velocimetry (TR-PIV) has evolved as a means of measuring temporally correlated velocity fields, allowing the acquisition of PIV movies. Extension beyond roughly 10 kHz is not yet feasible with the diode-pumped solid-state lasers that typically are used in lower speed regimes. Instead, TR-PIV in high-speed flows is best accomplished using a pulse-burst laser, as this is the only light source capable of producing sufficient energy at the necessary pulse rates. Furthermore, it can produce pairs of pulses at arbitrary separation times, which allows the very short times between paired exposures compatible with high-speed flow, in contrast with the long time between exposures using a single kHz-rate laser. Simultaneous with the maturation of pulse-burst laser technology, quality high-speed cameras have begun to achieve desirable framing rates without excessive sacrifice of the size of the spatial array.

A new debris sensor based on dual excitation sources for online debris monitoring

Abstract: Mechanical systems could be severely damaged by loose debris generated through wear processes between contact surfaces. Hence, debris detection is necessary for effective fault diagnosis, life prediction, and prevention of catastrophic failures. This paper presents a new in-line debris sensor for hydraulic systems based on dual excitation sources. The proposed sensor makes magnetic lines more concentrated while at the same time improving magnetic field uniformity. As a result the sensor has higher sensitivity and improved precision. This paper develops the sensor model, discusses sensor structural features, and introduces a measurement method for debris size identification. Finally, experimental verification is presented indicating that that the sensor can effectively detect 81 μm (cube) or larger particles in 12 mm outside diameter (OD) organic glass pipe.

A large scale experimental approach to the measurement of spatially and temporally localised loading from the detonation of shallow-buried explosives

Abstract: A large scale experimental approach to the direct measurement of the spatial and temporal variation in loading resulting from an explosive event has been developed. The approach utilises a fixed target plate through which Hopkinson pressure bars are inserted. This technique allows the pressure-time histories for an array of bars to be generated, giving data over a large area of interest. A numerical interpolation technique has also been developed to allow for the full pressure-time history for any point on the target plate to be estimated and hence total imparted impulse to be calculated. The principles underlying the design of the experimental equipment are discussed, along with the importance of carefully controlling the explosive preparation, and the method and location of the detonation initiation. Initial results showing the key features of the loading recorded and the consistency attainable by this method are presented along with the data interpolation routines used to estimate the loading on the entire face.

Particle image pattern mutual information and uncertainty estimation for particle image velocimetry

Abstract: In this work we introduce a new measure for particle image velocimetry (PIV) cross-correlation quality and establish analytically its connection to the basic PIV theory. This metric, which we term 'mutual information' (MI), can be used to estimate the number of correlated particles and connect to the PIV measurement uncertainty quantification. In PIV the number of particles in common between two consecutive frames forms the basis of the cross-correlation operation that yields the velocity measurement. Since the particle image pattern intensity distribution within each image represents the available signal, the inherent number of common particle pairs between the cross-correlated images, which can be thought of as the amount of mutual information, governs the potential accuracy of the PIV measurement. The number of common particle pairs between the images can be expressed by the product of the image density NI, and the fraction of particles that leave the frame due to in-plane and out-of-plane motion FI and FO, respectively. It has previously been shown that this parameter, NIFIFO, directly relates to the validity of a PIV measurement. However, in real experiments, NIFIFO is unknown and difficult to calculate. Here we propose to overcome this limitation by introducing a new metric (MI), which directly computes the apparent amount of common information contained in the particle patterns of two consecutive images without prior knowledge of the particle field. Both theoretical derivation and experimental results are provided to show that MI and NIFIFO represent the same characteristics of a PIV measurement. Subsequently, MI is used to develop a model for PIV uncertainty estimation. This metric and the corresponding uncertainty model presented herein are applied to both standard and a filtered phase-only (robust phase correlation) correlation methods. These advancements lead to robust uncertainty estimation models, which are tested against both synthetic benchmark data as well as real experimental measurements. For all cases considered here, and uncertainties demonstrated coverage factors approximately equal to the theoretically expected values of 68.5% and 95%, which reflect 1σ and 2σ levels in a normal distribution model respectively.

Direct comparison of AFM and SEM measurements on the same set of nanoparticles

Abstract: This article is the first step in the development of a hybrid metrology combining AFM and SEM techniques for measuring the dimensions of a nanoparticle population in 3D space (X,Y,Z). This method exploits the strengths of each technique on the same set of nanoparticles. AFM is used for measuring the nanoparticle height and the measurements along X and Y axes are deduced from SEM images. A sampling method is proposed in order to obtain the best deposition conditions of SiO2 and gold nanoparticles on mica or silicon substrates. Only the isolated nanoparticles are taken into account in the histogram of size distribution. Moreover, a semi-automatic Matlab routine has also been developed to process the AFM and SEM images, measure and count the nanoparticles. This routine allows the user to exclusively select the isolated nanoparticles through a control interface. The measurements have been performed on spherical-like nanoparticles to test the method by comparing the results obtained with both techniques.

Two-point concrete resistivity measurements: interfacial phenomena at the electrode–concrete contact zone

Abstract: Ac impedance spectroscopy measurements are used to critically examine the end-to-end (two-point) testing technique employed in evaluating the bulk electrical resistivity of concrete. In particular, this paper focusses on the interfacial contact region between the electrode and specimen and the influence of contacting medium and measurement frequency on the impedance response. Two-point and four-point electrode configurations were compared and modelling of the impedance response was undertaken to identify and quantify the contribution of the electrode–specimen contact region on the measured impedance. Measurements are presented in both Bode and Nyquist formats to aid interpretation. Concretes mixes conforming to BSEN206-1 and BS8500-1 were investigated which included concretes containing the supplementary cementitious materials fly ash and ground granulated blast-furnace slag. A measurement protocol is presented for the end-to-end technique in terms of test frequency and electrode–specimen contacting medium in order to minimize electrode–specimen interfacial effect and ensure correct measurement of bulk resistivity.

Comparison of optical methods for surface roughness characterization

Abstract: We report a study of the correlation between three optical methods for characterizing surface roughness: a laboratory scatterometer measuring the bi-directional reflection distribution function (BRDF instrument), a simple commercial scatterometer (rBRDF instrument), and a confocal optical profiler. For each instrument, the effective range of spatial surface wavelengths is determined, and the common bandwidth used when comparing the evaluated roughness parameters. The compared roughness parameters are: the root-mean-square (RMS) profile deviation (Rq), the RMS profile slope (Rdq), and the variance of the scattering angle distribution (Aq). The twenty-two investigated samples were manufactured with several methods in order to obtain a suitable diversity of roughness patterns.Our study shows a one-to-one correlation of both the Rq and the Rdq roughness values when obtained with the BRDF and the confocal instruments, if the common bandwidth is applied. Likewise, a correlation is observed when determining the Aq value with the BRDF and the rBRDF instruments.Furthermore, we show that it is possible to determine the Rq value from the Aq value, by applying a simple transfer function derived from the instrument comparisons. The presented method is validated for surfaces with predominantly 1D roughness, i.e. consisting of parallel grooves of various periods, and a reflectance similar to stainless steel. The Rq values are predicted with an accuracy of 38% at the 95% confidence interval.

Non-contact multi-frequency magnetic induction spectroscopy system for industrial-scale bio-impedance measurement

Abstract: Biological tissues have a complex impedance, or bio-impedance, profile which changes with respect to frequency. This is caused by dispersion mechanisms which govern how the electromagnetic field interacts with the tissue at the cellular and molecular level. Measuring the bio-impedance spectra of a biological sample can potentially provide insight into the sample's properties and its cellular structure. This has obvious applications in the medical, pharmaceutical and food-based industrial domains. However, measuring the bio-impedance spectra non-destructively and in a way which is practical at an industrial scale presents substantial challenges. The low conductivity of the sample requires a highly sensitive instrument, while the demands of industrial-scale operation require a fast high-throughput sensor of rugged design. In this paper, we describe a multi-frequency magnetic induction spectroscopy (MIS) system suitable for industrial-scale, non-contact, spectroscopic bio-impedance measurement over a bandwidth of 156kHz-2.5MHz. The system sensitivity and performance are investigated using calibration and known reference samples. It is shown to yield rapid and consistently sensitive results with good long-term stability. The system is then used to obtain conductivity spectra of a number of biological test samples, including yeast suspensions of varying concentration and a range of agricultural produce, such as apples, pears, nectarines, kiwis, potatoes, oranges and tomatoes. © 2015 IOP Publishing Ltd.

Dual-modality wire-mesh sensor for the visualization of three-phase flows

Abstract: Three-phase gas–liquid–liquid flows are very common in petroleum extraction, production, and transport. In this work a dual-modality measuring technique is introduced which may be well applied for three-phase flow visualization. The measuring principle is based on simultaneous excitation with two distinct frequencies to interrogate each crossing point of a mesh sensor, which in turn are linked to conductive and capacitive parts of fluid impedance. The developed system can operate eight transmitter and eight receiver electrodes at a frame repetition frequency up to 781 Hz. The system has been evaluated by measuring reference components. The overall measurement uncertainty was 8.4%, which considering the fast repetition frequency of measurements is suitable for flow investigation. Furthermore, a model-based method to fuse the data from the dual-modality wire-mesh sensor and to obtain individual phase fraction of gas–oil–water flow is introduced. Here a parametrized model is fitted to the measured conductivity and permittivity distributions enabling one to obtain phase fraction from measured data. The method has been applied and tested to the acquired data from a mesh sensor in static and dynamic three-phase mixtures of gas, oil, and water. Fused images and quantitative values show good agreement with reference values. The newly developed dual-modality wire-mesh sensor has the potential to investigate three-phase flows to a good degree of detail, being a valuable tool to investigate such flows.

Energy operator demodulating of optimal resonance components for the compound faults diagnosis of gearboxes

Abstract: Compound faults diagnosis is a challenge for rotating machinery fault diagnosis. The vibration signals measured from gearboxes are usually complex, non-stationary, and nonlinear. When compound faults occur in a gearbox, weak fault characteristic signals are always submerged by the strong ones. Therefore, it is difficult to detect a weak fault by using the demodulating analysis of vibration signals of gearboxes directly. The key to compound faults diagnosis of gearboxes is to separate different fault characteristic signals from the collected vibration signals. Aiming at that problem, a new method for the compound faults diagnosis of gearboxes is proposed based on the energy operator demodulating of optimal resonance components. In this method, the genetic algorithm is first used to obtain the optimal decomposition parameters. Then the compound faults vibration signals of a gearbox are subject to resonance-based signal sparse decomposition (RSSD) to separate the fault characteristic signals of the gear and the bearing by using the optimal decomposition parameters. Finally, the separated fault characteristic signals are analyzed by energy operator demodulating, and each one's instantaneous amplitude can be calculated. According to the spectra of instantaneous amplitudes of fault characteristic signals, the faults of the gear and the bearing can be diagnosed, respectively. The performance of the proposed method is validated by using the simulation data and the experiment vibration signals from a gearbox with compound faults.

A reference material for establishing uncertainties in full-field displacement measurements

Abstract: A simple reference material for establishing the minimum measurement uncertainty of optical systems for measuring 3D surface displacement fields in deforming objects is described and its use demonstrated by employing 3D digital image correlation as an exemplar technique. The reference material consists of a stepped bar, whose dimensions can be scaled to suit the application, and that can be clamped rigidly at its thick end to create an idealized cantilever. The cantilever was excited at resonance to generate out-of-plane displacements and, in a separate experiment, loaded statically in-plane to provide in-plane displacement fields. The displacements were measured using 3D digital image correlation and compared to the predicted displacement fields derived from tip deflections obtained using a calibrated transducer that provided traceability to the national standard for length. The minimum measurement uncertainties were evaluated by comparing the measured and predicted displacement fields, taking account of the uncertainties in the input parameters for the predictions. It was found that the minimum measurement uncertainties were less than 3% for the Cartesian components of displacement present during static in-plane bending and less than 3 µm for out-of-plane displacements during dynamic loading. It was concluded that this reference material was more straightforward to use, more versatile and yielded comparable results relative to an earlier design.

A method of real-time fault diagnosis for power transformers based on vibration analysis

Abstract: In this paper, a novel probability-based classification model is proposed for real-time fault detection of power transformers. First, the transformer vibration principle is introduced, and two effective feature extraction techniques are presented. Next, the details of the classification model based on support vector machine (SVM) are shown. The model also includes a binary decision tree (BDT) which divides transformers into different classes according to health state. The trained model produces posterior probabilities of membership to each predefined class for a tested vibration sample. During the experiments, the vibrations of transformers under different conditions are acquired, and the corresponding feature vectors are used to train the SVM classifiers. The effectiveness of this model is illustrated experimentally on typical in-service transformers. The consistency between the results of the proposed model and the actual condition of the test transformers indicates that the model can be used as a reliable method for transformer fault detection.

Grinding process monitoring based on electromechanical impedance measurements

Abstract: Grinding is considered one of the last processes in precision parts manufacturing, which makes it indispensable to have a reliable monitoring system to evaluate workpiece surface integrity. This paper proposes the use of the electromechanical impedance (EMI) method to monitor the surface grinding operation in real time, particularly the surface integrity of the ground workpiece. The EMI method stands out for its simplicity and for using low-cost components such as PZT (lead zirconate titanate) piezoelectric transducers. In order to assess the feasibility of applying the EMI method to the grinding process, experimental tests were performed on a surface grinder using a CBN grinding wheel and a SAE 1020 steel workpiece, with PZT transducers mounted on the workpiece and its holder. During the grinding process, the electrical impedance of the transducers was measured and damage indices conventionally used in the EMI method were calculated and compared with workpiece wear, indicating the surface condition of the workpiece. The experimental results indicate that the EMI method can be an efficient and cost-effective alternative for monitoring precision workpieces during the surface grinding process.

Development and characterisation of a new line width reference material

Abstract: A new critical dimension (CD, often synonymously used for line width) reference material with improved vertical parallel sidewalls (IVPSs) has been developed and characterised. The sample has a size of 6 mm × 6 mm, consisting of 4 groups of 5 × 5 feature patterns. Each feature pattern has a group of five reference line features with a nominal CD of 50 nm, 70 nm, 90 nm, 110 nm and 130 nm, respectively. Each feature pattern includes a pair of triangular alignment marks, applicable for precisely identifying the target measurement position, e.g. for comparison or calibration between different tools. The geometry of line features has been investigated thoroughly using a high-resolution transmission electron microscope and a CD atomic force microscope (CD-AFM). Their results indicate the high quality of the line features: the top corner radius of <7 nm, vertical sidewall (slope mostly within 90° ± 0.5°) and very small line width variation (LWR down to 0.36 nm). The application of the developed sample for calibrating the scaling factor and effective tip geometry of the CD-AFM are demonstrated. The scaling factor of the CD-AFM is calibrated to be 0.9988, coinciding well with the theoretical value 1 as the tool was calibrated to a traceable metrological atomic force microscope. The effective width of a CDR120-EBD tip is calibrated as 128.32 nm. Finally, a strategy for the non-destructive calibration of the developed sample is introduced, which enables the application of the reference material in practice.

On the uncertainty of surface determination in x-ray computed tomography for dimensional metrology

Abstract: With x-ray computed tomography (CT) it is possible to evaluate the dimensions of an object’s internal and external features non-destructively. Dimensional measurements evaluated via x-ray CT require the object’s surfaces first be estimated; this work is concerned with evaluating the uncertainty of this surface estimate and how it impacts the uncertainty of fitted geometric features. The measurement uncertainty due to surface determination is evaluated through the use of a discrete ramp edge model and a Monte Carlo simulation. Based on the results of the Monte Carlo simulation the uncertainty structure of a coordinate set is estimated, allowing individual coordinate uncertainties to be propagated through the geometry fit to the final measurement result. The developed methodology enables the uncertainty due to surface determination to be evaluated for a given measurement task; the method is demonstrated for both measured and simulated data.

Impact damage investigation on composite laminates: comparison among different NDT methods and numerical simulation

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to investigate the ability of different NDT techniques to detect and evaluate barely visible and non-visible impact damage on composite laminates. Firstly, a conventional ultrasound technique was adopted to investigate the delamination in carbon fibre laminates after low velocity impact s. Then the results were compared with a thermographic and holographic analysis, as well as a theoretical simulation of the expected delamination. The results were compared and discussed. Overall a good agreement was found between the data obtained by the different techniques. Furthermore, the true values of the damage parameters were confirmed by DT performed on the samples.