Showing papers in "Psychology & Marketing in 1994"
TL;DR: In this article, the authors tested the matchup hypothesis regarding choice of celebrity spokesperson by examining the fit or congruence between image type and the product advertised from an Identification and Internalization viewpoint.
Abstract: This study tested the matchup hypothesis regarding choice of celebrity spokesperson by examining the fit or congruence between image type and the product advertised from an Identification and Internalization viewpoint (Kelman, 1961). Spokesperson type (celebrity versus noncelebrity) was varied, aong with congruence between spokesperson image and product (higher versus lower congruence) in a 2x2 factorial design. Results showed that increased congruence for the spokesperson/product combination resulted in the perception of higher believability and attractiveness of the spokesperson and a more favorable product attitude. The implications of these and other findings for advertising and marketing strategy are discussed. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
664 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the matchup hypothesis, or the notion that the congruence in advertisements between spokesperson characteristics and product attributes is related to observed variations in source credibility, product evaluations, perceived product gender, and other measures of advertising and communication effectiveness.
Abstract: This aricle examines the matchup hypothesis or the notion that the congruence in advertisements between spokesperson characteristics and product attributes is related to observed variations in source credibility, product evaluations, perceived product gender, and other measures of advertising and communication effectiveness. Schema theory is used to interpret the results of previous inquiries into the matchup hypothesis, and the results of two experiments that provide additional insight into how schema might be changed by a spokesperson/product match are reported. Areas of future research into the matchup hypothesis on schema theory implications are discussed. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
375 citations
TL;DR: This paper identified differences between sex, gender identity, and gender role attitudes using measures of these constructs, data were collected in a field study of Christmas shopping behaviors, and the results showed the models best fit the data when the measures were specified as reflecting unique rather than common gender constructs.
Abstract: This article identifies differences between sex, gender identity, and gender role attitudes. Using measures of these constructs, data were collected in a field study of Christmas shopping behaviors. Alternative measurement and multivariate regression models were estimated. The results showed the models best fit the data when the measures were specified as reflecting unique rather than common gender constructs. The measures also each explained significant incremental variance in different shopping behaviors. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
348 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used means-end chain theory and laddering methodology to derive the goals relevant to consumers for recycling, as well as the interrelations among goals, and their effects on attitudes, subjective norms, and past behavior determined.
Abstract: Means-end chain theory and the laddering methodology were used to derive the goals relevant to consumers for recycling, as well as the interrelations among goals. The importance of the goals and their hierarchical structure were also tested, and their effects on attitudes, subjective norms, and past behavior determined. Data were collected on 133 consumers in a moderate-size metropolitan community by use of a random digit dialing procedure. The overall framework emerging from the analyses is one where concrete goals lead to more abstract goals, and attitudes and past behavior intervene between goals and intentions in decision making. Nineteen total goals were uncovered, with 15 ultimately found to be salient. The topmost goals in the hierarchy were “promote health/avoid sickness,” “achieve life-sustaining ends,” and “provide for future generations.” The key lower-order goals—“avoid filling up landfills,” “reduce waste,” “reuse materials,” and “save the environment”—work through such intermediary goals as “reduce messy trash,” “curtail pollution,” “save resources,” and “save the planet.” Two important terminal goals that were also at intermediate levels in the hierarchy were “save/earn money” and “it's the right thing to do.” © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
314 citations
TL;DR: The authors suggest that part of the reason for the poor association hetween attitudes and such hehavior is the possibility that many altruistic acts such as recycling are suhject to affective influences that may not he fully captured by commonly employed attitude measures.
Abstract: Recent attempts to improve the influence of social marketing have often focused on behavioral strategies, largely neglecting the concept of attitude. This is understandable given the weak performance of attitudinal variahles as a predictor in past studies of proenvironmental hehavior. However, we suggest that part of the reason for the poor association hetween attitudes and such hehavior is the possibility that many altruistic acts such as recycling are suhject to affective influences that may not he fully captured by commonly employed attitude measures. We also suggest that attitude strength might moderate the extent to which affective reactions account for additional variance in hehavior. Specifically, it is predicted that affect is more important for weak than for strong attitudes. Empirical results are presented to support these suggestions. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
178 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a framework for integrating past recycling research by conceptualizing recycling compliance as a marketing pro-hlem is presented, where recycling hehavior is considered the product, and the marketing pro hlem is to sell recycling to the consumers or puhlic.
Abstract: This article provides a framework for integrating past recycling research by conceptualizing recycling compliance as a marketing prohlem. Within a social marketing framework, recycling hehavior is considered the product, and the marketing prohlem is to sell recycling to the consumers or puhlic. Recycling research is then categorized as consumer research (research on characteristics of the recycler), pricing research (research on the costs to the consumer, including implicit or less tangihle costs), distrihution research (research on modes of participation for the recycler), and promotional research (research on intervention strategies such as raffles and contests, personal selling techniques such as hlock leader programs, and persuasive communications). Using this framework, we provide an integration of a vast amount of recycling research, and also suggest how this research can he used to design actionahle strategies for the development of community recycling programs. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
140 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a quasiexperimental design, direct behavioral observations and attitudinal and other survey data were drawn from 140 households in a northeastern metropolitan community, to test hypotheses related to the efficacy of different message appeal (fear, satisfaction) and source (advertising, publicity, personal) strategies.
Abstract: This research contributes to the area of environmental management by investigating strategic approaches to motivating increased citizen compliance with community recycling programs Using a quasiexperimental design, direct behavioral observations and attitudinal and other survey data were drawn from 140 households in a northeastern metropolitan community, to test hypotheses related to the efficacy of different message appeal (fear, satisfaction) and source (advertising, publicity, personal) strategies Although positive appeals yielded most favorable levels of beliefs and attitude toward recycling, the greatest increase in recycling behavior came in response to a negatively framed message conveyed by a personal acquaintance © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc
114 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a field study was conducted to examine if time of adoption was systematically related with use innovativeness, product involvement, and extent of product usage, and the results showed that early adopters had significantly higher use innovateativeness and product involvement as compared to the early majority.
Abstract: A field study was conducted to examine if time of adoption (i.e., purchase innovativeness) was systematically related with use innovativeness, product involvement, and extent of product usage. The results showed that early adopters had significantly higher use innovativeness and product involvement as compared to the early majority. Although usage variety was higher for early adopters, no significant differences were found in usage frequency between the two groups. Use innovativeness and involvement mediated the relationship between purchase innovativeness and usage variety. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
96 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that moods and emotions appear to influence brand attitudes more in low personal relevance (low motivational involvement) situations than under high-motivation conditions, by suppressing counterargumentation more in such low motivation situations.
Abstract: The role of the moods and emotions evoked by advertisements in shaping the amount and valence of cognitive elaboration, as well as consumer brand attitudes, has recently begun to elicit research interest. It is shown that moods and emotions appear to influence brand attitudes more in low personal relevance (“low motivational involvement”) situations than under high-motivation conditions, by suppressing counterargumentation more in such low motivation situations. Implications are discussed for advertising theory and practice © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
76 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a conceptual model of use innovativeness is proposed, which focuses on the origination and production of new product uses rather than the adoption of new products, and issues in construct measurement and validation are also highlighted.
Abstract: In this article a conceptual model of use innovativeness is proposed. Use innovativeness is positioned within the broader innate innovativeness construct. Use innovativeness is conceptualized as a consumer's receptivity/attraction to and creativity with using products in new ways. Thus, use innovativeness focuses on the origination and production of new product uses rather than the adoption of new products. Relationships between innovativeness, use innovativeness, and use behaviors are explicated. In addition, issues in construct measurement and validation are also highlighted. Finally, a research agenda that flows from the proposed model is suggested. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
75 citations
TL;DR: For example, the authors found that uncertainty-oriented consumers experienced higher purchase risk and engaged in greater external search activity than certainty-oriented individuals. But the results were modest, they suggest that uncertainty orientation might be fruitfully examined in other applied contexts.
Abstract: This study incorporates uncertainty orientation, an individual difference variable concerned with cognitive response to uncertainty, and purchase involvement in a multiple indicator model of consumer external search activity. The model is tested using partial least squares in two contexts: for durable purchase decisions. Purchase involvement was found to be a multidimensional construct and only the experienced purchaserisk dimension was captured in the measurement models. For durables, uncertainty-oriented consumers experienced greater purchase risk and engaged in greater external seach than certainty-oriented consumers. For nondurables, uncertainty-oriented consumers experienced lower purchase risk than certainty-oriented consumers. Although the results are modest, they suggest that uncertainty orientation might be fruitfully examined in other applied contexts. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: In addition, the authors found that participants were not consciously aware of the influence of the contextual prime, suggesting the presence of implicit memory effects on the perception of an ad. And they used public service and clothing advertisements to study the effect of contextual priming on visual components.
Abstract: Can the program context significantly influence the perception of an ad? Past advertising research has demonstrated contextual priming effects on the verbal part of an ad. Using public service and clothing advertisements, the present two experiments provide evidence for priming effects on visual components. Moreover, in extensive debriefing sessions, participants reported that they were not consciously aware of the influence of the contextual prime-suggesting the presence of implicit memory effects. Future research should focus on advertisements containing both verbal and visual information to better understand context influences on advertisements. 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: The authors reported the results of two studies where subjects' mood states (good, bad) were manipulated and found that subjects' evaluations were biased by their mood state, however, this bias was only discernible when the product evaluation was perceived to be relatively unimportant.
Abstract: This article reports the results of two studies where subjects' mood states (good, bad) were manipulated. In keeping with previous findings, subjects' evaluations were biased by their mood state. As predicted, however, this bias was only discernible when the product evaluation was perceived to be relatively unimportant. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: This paper showed that the use of visual advertising retrieval cue (a green frog as the brand character) improved memory performance and brand evaluations in young children's memory for television advertising is important in order for children to recognize brands in stores and/or to recall the brand name in making a purchase request.
Abstract: Young children's memory for television advertising is important in order for children to recognize brands in stores and/or to recall the brand name in making a purchase request. Two experiments showed that the use of visual advertising retrieval cue (a green frog as the brand character) improved memory performance and brand evaluations. Study 1 (n = 40) showed promise in the cue's assistance in children's recalling the brand name (cued recall) from the ad memory trace. Study 2 (n = 40) contained multiple exposures to the ad, which resulted in greater free recall and in support for the cue's assistance in better access of the brand name from the ad memory trace (cued recall). Affected ad memory resulted in more favorable brand evaluations and intent to request the brand's purchase. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: In this paper, a survey questionnaire and a $1.00 incentive were sent to 200 randomly selected residents of a midwestern city, where the incentive was justified in a cover letter as an attempt to induce feelings of obligation to return the questionnaire.
Abstract: An experiment was conducted in which a survey questionnaire and a $1.00 incentive were sent to 200 randomly selected residents of a midwestern city. For half of the respondents, the enclosed monetary incentive was justified in a cover letter as an attempt to induce feelings of obligation to return the questionnaire (equity-salient condition), whereas for the other half of the respondents, the incentive was justified as an appreciative gesture (standard condition). Furthermore, some subjects received a short questionnaire, whereas the rest received a long questionnaire. Response rates were assessed by condition. As predicted, the equity-salient appeal produced a significantly higher response rate than the standard appeal, but only for subjects who received the short questionnaire. Results are discussed in terms of personal equity theory. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: This paper reviewed progress to date on research on the effects of subliminal stimulation on subject populations and potential applications to persuasive communications and identified several fruitful areas for continued research and experimentation, especially in areas of social marketing research.
Abstract: This article reviews progress to date on research on the effects of subliminal stimulation on subject populations and potential applications to persuasive communications. Three areas of inquiry covered in the literature include psychological, physiological, and behavioral (choice) responses, the last of which is of particular interest to advertising and marketing specialists. The article identifies several fruitful areas for continued research and experimentation, especially in areas of social marketing research. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: In this article, the effect of a nonverbal affective stimulus, that is, music, on product evaluation and product choice was studied, using both mechanisms in two experiments with a comparable research format.
Abstract: Previous research has demonstrated that nonverbal, affective elements of ads have the capacity to influence the evaluation of the product in the ad, and product choice. Affective conditioning and mood induction have been presented as mechanisms responsible for this effect. In general, most researchers adopt only one of these two mechanisms in their studies. They often implicitly suggest that the two mechanisms are competing in the sense that only one mechanism is taken to be valid. In our study, the effect of a nonverbal affective stimulus, that is, music, on product evaluation and product choice was studied, using both mechanisms in two experiments with a comparable research format. The mood mechanism was studied by presenting music to subjects, thus inducing mood (cf. Alpert & Alpert, 1989; Batra & Stayman, 1990; Sullivan, 1990), followed by a slide presentation of a pen (the product). The affective conditioning mechanism was studied, using the same music and the same slides, presented in accordance with the affective conditioning paradigm. Results of the study indicate that both mechanisms may be operative in influencing the evaluation of the product, and product choice. It is further suggested that both mechanisms work differently. Mood induction is thought to create a short-lasting association between a product and an affective stimulus. Thus, the mechanism of mood induction may be primarily important to retailers selling multiple products, for example, by playing background music in a retail store. In contrast, affective conditioning is thought to create a longerlasting integration between a product and an affective stimulus. Consequently, the mechanism of affective conditioning may be successfully employed by producers of a specific product (line). © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: This paper examined college students' reactions to brief oral or written ads for products with English, French, German, or Spanish names and found that English names were generally favored over the foreign names.
Abstract: In an effort to correct methodological problems with previous research on effects of country-of-origin attributions, two experiments examined college students' reactions to brief oral or written ads for products with English, French, German, or Spanish names. Subjects rated how much they liked the ad and liked the product name and rated their likelihood of purchasing the product. Results showed that, overall, English names were generally favored over the foreign names. This finding, however, varied tremendously with the product; for several products one or more of the foreign names was preferred. Country of origin also frequently interacted with either sex or modality of the ad. In general, written ads were preferred over oral ones. Results were interpreted as arguing for great care and caution in interpreting country-of-origin effects. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors introduce a model to explain the process by which consumer satisfaction or dissatisfaction with price promotions can influence brand image, and predict how consumers might engage in various levels of attributional processing about price promotion satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
Abstract: This article introduces a model to explain the process by which consumer satisfaction or dissatisfaction with price promotions can influence brand image. Specifically, the model explores conditions under which consumers experience satisfaction or dissatisfaction with price promotions, predicts ways that consumers might engage in various levels of attributional processing about price promotion satisfaction or dissatisfaction, and examines how consumer attributions of price promotion satisfaction or dissatisfaction influence brand image. Managerial implications and directions for future research are also offered. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: In this paper, the impact of subjective time perceptions on consumer behavior with a focus on the elderly as a subgroup is discussed and coupled with various theories of aging to present, explain, and hypothesize age-related differences in time perceptions and the behavioral consequences of these differences.
Abstract: The study of the impact of time as a variable in consumer behavior goes back to at least the early seventies. It has been studied from both objective and subjective perspectives. The purpose of this article is to further explain the impact of subjective time perceptions on consumer behavior, with a focus on the elderly as a subgroup. Several frameworks for understanding time perceptions are discussed and coupled with various theories of aging to present, explain, and hypothesize age-related differences in time perceptions and the behavioral consequences of these differences. The article concludes with an integration of these time frameworks into the five-stage consumer decision-making process, and some suggested impacts on the marketing mix. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: An information processing model is proposed for understanding and predicting cognitive behaviors underlying the generation of an inference and specific predictions are generated concerning the impact of different levels of prior knowledge on the occurrence of inference and on the types of inference processes.
Abstract: An information processing model is proposed for understanding and predicting cognitive behaviors underlying the generation of an inference. J. R. Anderson's theory of cognitive skill learning serves as the basis for the conceptual model. Specific predictions are generated concerning the impact of different levels of prior knowledge on the occurrence of inference and on the types of inference processes. An effort is made to demonstrate how the theory can be developed into a formal, predictive model in the form of a computer simulation model. Finally, some suggestions for future research directions are discussed. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: The authors explored and compared the separate contributions of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny in explaining women's response to modern and traditional sex-role portrayals in print advertisements.
Abstract: This study explores and compares the separate contributions of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny in explaining women's response to modern and traditional sex-role portrayals in print advertisements. It also considers whether sex-role identity captures unique predictive information above and beyond specific demographic variables. This study consisted of a field experiment among 200 adult women; each respondent was exposed to several carefully prepared print ads. The findings suggest that sex-role identity is a useful predictor of women's response to advertisements. Moreover, masculinity is the driving force in explaining women's response to the tested ads. Androgyny, however, adds no incremental predictive ability. The findings indicate that sex-role identity does capture new information, unexplained by specific demographic variables. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: In this article, the use of affective and cognitive decision-making processes during questionnaire completion is examined through protocol analysis, and the implications of the results to applied and theoretical research are discussed.
Abstract: The use of affective and cognitive decision-making processes during questionnaire completion is examined through protocol analysis. Characteristics of the questionnaire, such as length and extremity of the scale anchor cues, resulted in more affective processing. Respondent-related variables, such as product familiarity, attitude toward survey research, and sex, had little influence on decision making. Finally, affective decision making influenced the outcomes of the questionnaire response analysis by being associated with more within-item variance, less decision time, and lower ratings. The implications of the results to applied and theoretical research are discussed. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors found that neither internal reference points nor purchase intentions were affected by exposure to comparative price advertisements, and no ANOVA differences were detected in change in IRP or purchase intention scores after ad exposure.
Abstract: As expected, internal reference prices (IRPs) and purchase intentions for two product categories (microwave ovens and disposable razors) differed according to whether consumers possessed a high or low level of consumer knowledge about the product in this factorial design experiment. Contrary to theory and expectations, neither internal reference points nor purchase intentions were affected by exposure to comparative price advertisements. Students were used as subjects in a before-after procedure with approximately two weeks between pre- and postmeasures of IRPs and purchase intentions. Postmeasures were taken immediately after exposure to ads containing three levels of advertised reference prices. t tests indicated differences between high and low knowledge group IRP means before ad exposure. However, no ANOVA differences were detected in change in IRP or purchase intention scores after ad exposure. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: The authors investigated the effect of social interaction as a mediator of responses to the theater ticket problems of Tversky and Kahneman (1981) and found that attending the theater with a friend versus alone reduced the effects of the lost ticket versus the loss of a $10 bill on willingness to spend a second $10 to see the play.
Abstract: The reported study is a response to the Kahneman and Tversky (1984; 1988) proposal that systematic examination of alternative framings of decisions offers a useful reflective device that can help decision makers assess the values that should be attached to the primary and secondary consequences of their choices. We investigate the effect of social interaction as a mediator of responses to the theater ticket problems of Tversky and Kahneman (1981). The hypothesis is supported that attending the theater with a friend (social interaction) versus alone reduced the effect of the lost ticket versus the loss of a $10 bill on willingness to spend a second $10 to see the play. A further hypothesis, that social interaction results in a positive main effect on attending the theater after the ticket ($10 bill) loss receives limited support. The results support the views of Payne (1982), Schoemaker (1982), and Bettman, Johnson, and Payne (1991) that context effects influence a decision maker's judgment and, hence, the outcome of the decision process. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: The controversy in dyadic research would be eliminated if analysts would specify a priori whether the conceptual or theoretical rationale for the research is to decipher the personal, subjective, or idiographic experience of individuals in dyads (individual properties), or to decipher objective, generalizable patterns of personality and lifestyle interaction that characterize dyadic relationships (relationship properties).
Abstract: Data source issues in dyadic research routinely revolve around the same persistent controversies: insiders versus outsiders, subjectivity versus objectivity, self-report versus observation, one partner versus two, first-order versus second-order data analysis. Yet much of the controversy in dyadic research would be eliminated if analysts would specify a priori whether the conceptual or theoretical rationale for the research is (a) to decipher the personal, subjective, or idiographic experience of individuals in dyads (individual properties), or (b) to decipher objective, generalizable patterns of personality and lifestyle interaction that characterize dyadic relationships (relationship properties). © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors take a moderator variable perspective on the relationships between two psychological variables: shopper decision-making styles from the consumer behavior literature and the concept of time perceptions as developed in the psychological literature, and shopping behavior, defined as shopping frequency and time spent shopping.
Abstract: This article takes a moderator variable perspective on the relationships between two psychological variables: shopper decision-making styles from the consumer behavior literature and the concept of time perceptions as developed in the psychological literature, and shopping behavior, defined as shopping frequency and time spent shopping. Two hypotheses about potential types of moderation are examined to determine if time perceptions moderate relationships between shopper styles and shopping behavior. The finding show that time perceptions operate as a pure moderator for shopping frequency but as a quasimoderator for time spent shopping. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: The effects of two factors (congruity of product information with consumer expectations and perceived risk associated with the product) on strategies used by consumers to evaluate products are tested in the United States and Thailand.
Abstract: The effects of two factors (congruity of product information with consumer expectations and perceived risk associated with the product) on strategies used by consumers to evaluate products are tested in the United States and Thailand. When product information does not match expectations, consumers in both cultures increase evaluation effort and shift from using summary representations stored in memory to evaluation based on actual product attributes. Perceived risk also enhances evaluation effort in both cultures, but does not result in a similar shift from category-based to attribute-based processing. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the motivational factors in consumer rebate usage and found that three factors were useful in predicting consumers' decisions to redeem rebates: price consciousness, perceived time and effort associated with rebate redemption, and perceived satisfactions from using rebates to obtain the savings.
Abstract: This study investigates the motivational factors in consumer rebate usage. Three motivational factors were identified and tested: price consciousness, perceived time and efforts associated with rebate redemption, and perceived satisfactions from using rebates to obtain the savings. The variables were operationalized by Likert-type statements. Validity and reliability were assessed and found to be acceptable. Moreover, the three factors were found to be useful in predicting consumers' decisions to redeem rebates. Managerial implications and recommendations for future research are offered. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors developed a conceptual framework for analyzing the process by which consumers evaluate brand quality based on multiple cues and provided a strong analytical foundation for comparing the use of hierarchical versus non-hierarchical heuristics by consumers in making overall brand evaluations.
Abstract: The primary focus of this research is to develop a conceptual framework for analyzing the process by which consumers evaluate brand quality based on multiple cues The representative design nature of this theory provides a strong analytical foundation for comparing the use of hierarchical versus nonhierarchical heuristics by consumers in making overall brand evaluations It also enables the modeling of individual differences among consumers in their choice of heuristics to evaluate brands Results of an illustrative experimental investigation show that hierarchical heuristics are as effective as nonhierarchical, or full-profile, heuristics It is also shown that brand evaluation heuristics can be broken down into an intuitive (nonlinear) component and a rule-bound (linear) component © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc