Showing papers in "Psychology & Marketing in 1995"

A comparative analysis of four scales of consumer involvement

Abstract: Four recent scales of consumer involvement are compared. These scales are first scrutinized, and, where necessary, modified, on a priori grounds. The modified scales are then empirically compared in terms of unidimensionality, convergent and discriminant validity, and nomological validity. On these criteria, the pruned and modified version of each of the four scales is found satisfactory. However, some unique features of each, which are discussed as trade-offs that marketing researchers would have to consider in their choice of a scale to measure this important consumer behavior construct. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Self-concept and advertising effectiveness: The influence of congruency, conspicuousness, and response mode

Abstract: It was hypothesized in this study that advertising appeals congruent with viewers' self-concept would be superior to incongruent appeals in terms of enhancing advertising effectiveness. Advertising effectiveness was operationalized as: brand memory, brand attitude, and purchase intentions. The sample consisted of 165 subjects who were exposed to four test stimuli (ads), two for automobiles and two for shampoos. One ad within a product class used an introvert appeal, and the other used an extrovert appeal. Congruence between self-concept and the brand image was determined by subjects' evaluations of themselves and the advertised brand. Ad-related tasks included remembering brand names and indicating preference and buying intention for each brand. The study results indicate that brand memory is not mediated by the extent to which advertising expressions are congruent with viewers' self-concept. However, brand preference and purchase intention were shown to be influenced by the self-congruency of an ad. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The effects of background music on consumers' desire to affiliate in buyer‐seller interactions

Abstract: The effect of music-induced pleasure and arousal on consumers' desire to affiliate in buyer-seller interactions were investigated in the context of bank services. Background music was manipulated using classical music extracts pretested to vary in pleasure (low, moderate, and high) and arousal (low, moderate, and high) according to the Affect Grid (Russell, Weiss, & Mendelsohn, 1989). Independent and interactive effects of music-induced pleasure and arousal on consumers' desire to affiliate were found. Higher desire to affiliate was associated with more pleasure and more arousal; pleasure had a stronger positive impact under low and high arousal than under a moderate level, and arousal had a stronger effect under low and high pleasure compared to moderate level. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are provided. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Effects of ambient odors on slot-machine usage in a las vegas casino

Abstract: Studies have shown that ambient aromas impact on consumers' behavior. To further investigate such effects, for one weekend, two slot-machine areas in a Las Vegas casino were odorized, each with a different aroma. A third slot-machine area served as an unodorized control. The amounts of money gambled in slot machines located in the three areas were measured and compared for the weekend of the odorization and for the weekends before and after as well, to control for extraneous variables. Our data show that the amount of money gambled in the slot machines surrounding Odorant No. 1 during the experimental weekend was greater than the amount gambled in the same area during the weekends before and after the experiment by an average of 45.11% (p = < 0.0001). Further, the amount of the increase appeared greater on Saturday when the concentration of odorant was higher: mean increase on Saturday was 53.42% (p = < 0.0001) versus mean increase on Sunday of 33.66% (p = < 0.003). The amounts of money gambled in the slot machines surrounding Odorant No. 2 and in the control area did not change significantly compared to the previous weekend and the weekend following the experiment. The likely mechanism of action of the effective odorant and the implications of these results are discussed. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Ecoscale: A scale for the measurement of environmentally responsible consumers

Abstract: The authors develop a 31-item instrument (ECOSCALE) for the assessment of environmental responsibility. Discussion of the conceptualization and operational functions used in constructing and refining the multiple-item scale to measure the construct environmental responsibility are described. Also presented is evidence that the scale has been validated through assessment of content validity, predictive validity, and construct validity. A final description of the theoretical uses of such a scale is provided. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Brand confusion: Empirical study of a legal concept

Abstract: Each year, hundreds of own-label products appear on the shelves of major multiple retailers that “look” like successful brands. The close imitation of a national brand trade dress aims at creating a “halo of resemblance,” on the basis of which consumers may make inferences and attributions of similarity of use, of content, if not of origin. In most countries, imitation is condemned if there is a risk of confusion. But the final decision as to whether or not such a risk exists is left up to the judge. The purpose of this paper is to test for the presence of confusion by means of a tachistoscopic experiment. It aims at bringing empirical data into the courtroom. Hence, it relies on the operational definition used by courts to evaluate the likelihood of confusion. This research demonstrates that the risk of confusion is real. It also shows how this confusion operates. Finally, it raises some important ethical issues in the face of the fact that many copied brands hesitate to engage lawsuits. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Empathy and the salesperson: A multidimensional perspective

Abstract: Prior studies of empathy have yielded conflicting findings regarding the effectiveness of empathy in improving salesperson performance. This article integrates a multidimensional conceptualization of empathy from the psychology literature with existing theory from marketing literature to suggest that perspective taking, empathic concern, emotional contagion, and controlling behaviors will differentially effect salesperson performance. Responses from a survey of business-to-business salespeople indicate that empathy has both positive and negative effects. Implications of the findings are explored. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Psychographic constructs and demographic segments

Abstract: As marketers attempt to place advertisements based on demographic profiles, the use of psychographic information becomes more important. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the validity of selected psychographic measures as well as to then relate these constructs to demographic segments. The analysis, using LISREL VI, assesses the constructs, which then, based on MANOV, are related to demographic segments. Implications of the study for validating psychographic measures and for applying this knowledge are discussed. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Customer complaint situations: An equity theory perspective

Abstract: The purpose of the study was to determine the effects of equity and outcomes in customer complaint situations. The study utilized a 2 × 2 within-subjects design with equity (inequity, equity) and outcomes (low, high) as the independent variables. The dependent variables were perceived equity, behavioral intentions, resentment, and guilt. Subjects were 128 students from a large western university. It was hypothesized that high outcome situations would be perceived as more equitable than low outcome situations, regardless of equity condition; high outcome situations would yield more favorable behavioral intentions, regardless of equity condition; subjects would perceive more resentment in inequitable, low outcome situations; subjects would perceive more guilt in inequitable, high outcome situations. Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 were supported. Hypothesis 4 was not supported. Implications for customer complaint handling practices were discussed. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

An exploration into renting as consumption behavior

Abstract: This article describes an initial, exploratory look at a quickly growing new type of consumption behavior, renting. Insights about renting are generated from a small, qualitative study of rental behavior and motives. As an initial cut at conceptualizing and understanding rental consumption, a wide range of topics are considered, including instant gratification, postpurchase dissonance, self-exploration, cultivation of rental items, and some implications of renting regarding materialism. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Consumer evaluation of recycled products

Abstract: Despite the tremendous growth of recycled and recyclable products in recent years, there exists very little research on how consumers evaluate such products. An experiment was conducted to examine whether consumers' reactions to recycled products is product specific and cognitive or affective and not product specific. Results indicated that consumers are favorably influenced by the presence of recycled material regardless of the type of product, thus supporting an affective evaluation process. Results also indicated that the positive effects of recycling held only for established brands and not for new brands. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Environmental consumerism: A process of children's socialization and families' resocialization

Abstract: The development and impact of children's concern for the environment is addressed A model is presented that illustrates that such development may be based upon children's cognitive status, their exposure to nature, and their exposure to particular socializing influences One of the possible outcomes of children's concern for the environment is that they may become catalysts for family environmental consumerism, and thereby influence related family attitudes and decision-making We propose that environmental consumerism may be moderated by the nature of family communication patterns, which can affect the possibility of family resocialization regarding environmental concerns In addition, family resources are also expected to moderate the degree of family environmental consumerism We suggest that environmental consumerism will be reflected in both purchasing and recycling choices and behavior Consequently, marketing implications are also addressed © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Attitude and risk: Exploring the relationship

Abstract: The attitude and risk constructs each enjoy prominence in marketing research. Attitude is conceptualized and widely accepted as a construct predicated on beliefs. Risk shares the same conceptual underpinning, for risk is predicated on expectations, itself a beliefbased concept. The idea of two constructs predicated on beliefs presents a possible conceptual overlap between the two constructs depending upon the nature of these beliefs. No research, however, has investigated the two constructs in such a beliefs similarity context. Thus, this research explored the proposition that in situation-specific instances risk may share a number of beliefs in common with attitude and, as such, is not to be viewed as a construct separate from attitude, but as an integral, inherent component of attitude formation. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Belief when evidence does not support theory

Abstract: Marketing has looked to other scientific disciplines to supplement its understanding of motivation. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory is frequently uncritically cited in texts, even though most evidence has failed to support its validity. Science requires that theory be supported by empirical facts. Maslow's theory is briefly summarized, along with a review of the related literature. Reasons are given and empirically supported for the continued popularity of Maslow's theory in marketing despite lack of scientific support. A cautionary note for the continued development of marketing theory concludes the presentation. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

A theory of reasoned action perspective of voting behavior: Model and empirical test

Abstract: A model based on the theory of reasoned action was developed to analyze voting behavior Based on an empirical test in Singapore, the proposed model was found to be generally effective in predicting the intentions of voters Attitudes toward the candidate and political party contributed more to explaining variation in voting intention than interpersonal and mass media subjective-norm components Direct measures of affect served to better account for voting intention variation than componentially derived measures, although they did not completely mediate the latter's effect Implications of the findings are discussed and suggestions for future research furnished © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

A personal construct analysis of adaptive selling and sales experience

Abstract: Customer orientation is a key to successful marketing strategies. In personal selling, customer orientation has been shown to be related to the quality of the customer-salesperson relationship (Saxe & Weitz, 1978). Adaptive selling (Weitz, Sujan, & Sujan, 1986) is a theoretical perspective that suggests sales performance is related to salespeople's ability to shift their customer orientation, by adapting their behavior to different customers in different situations. This article presents personal construct theory (Kelly, 1955) as a framework for understanding how sales personnel perceive and adapt to customers. An interview technique known as laddering (Gutman, 1982; Hinkle, 1965) is used to elicit these constructs from sales personnel. Results of the interviews are compared across levels of sales experience. Consistent with the Sujan, Sujan, and Bettman (1988) findings relating sales effectiveness and breadth of knowledge structures, we find that the number of years of sales experience is related to the breadth of constructs obtained from the laddering interviews. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Measuring customer orientation of a salesperson: Modifications of the soco scale

Abstract: This article addresses modifications made to the Michaels and Day (1985) version of the SOCO (selling orientation customer orientation) scale. Two modifications were made on the basis of pilot interviews conducted with industrial buyers. First, the scale items were changed to refer to a particular salesperson rather than salespeople. Second, the 9-point scale was changed to a more conventional 7-point scale. Further, in order to provide all respondents with the same frame of reference, scale instructions were modified to refer to the respondent's most recent buying situation. Scale properties were evaluated using the updated paradigm suggested by Gerbing and Anderson (1988). Unidimensionality of the scale was insured through the use of a confirmatory factor analysis program. The reliability of the scale is higher than that reported by Saxe and Weitz (1982), and Michaels and Day (1985). Convergent and discriminant validity were also assessed. The scale as modified in this article can be used to assess buyers' perceptions of salespeople and could provide sales managers with a means of assessing long-term aspects of a salesperson's performance. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Quantifying perceived differences in type styles: An exploratory study

Abstract: This article reports on the results of an experiment to determine whether type style is a significant influence on readers' affective response to print. A repeated-measures, full-factorial design employing 250 subjects revealed that readers respond differently to both serif and sans serif general print types and to specific types within these major classifications. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Classical conditioning of unattended stimuli

Abstract: Recently, marketing has increasingly recognized the potential application of classical conditioning principles. However, the design of marketing studies involving classical conditioning create focused attention upon the conditioned stimulus; whereas in the realistic marketing environment the conditioned stimulus seldom receives focused attention and most likely receives attenuated attention. Using a classical conditioning paradigm, the present study investigated the use of positive and negative unconditioned stimuli in the formation of affect for attended and unattended conditioned stimuli. The results indicated that the use of positive unconditioned stimuli can establish the formation of affect for both the attended and unattended conditioned stimuli. However, classical conditioning was not demonstrated when the unconditioned stimuli were negative. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Cognitive competence of older consumers

Abstract: Older adult memory performance declines with age. However, memory for newly learned material is only one measure of cognitive competence. This article reviews research that measured older adult cognitive performance using tasks that tap crystallized abilities, everyday problem solving, and those that used older expert subjects. The results indicate that many cognitive functions remain stable from middle age onward. This suggests that cognitive decline is not an inevitable result of aging per se. This implies that antecedents of cognitive decline, such as health, should be used as a segmentation variable for the older adult market. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Romanticism and wanderlust: An effect of personality on consumer preferences

Abstract: This study investigates the role of romanticism versus classicism in determining consumer preferences among various types of vacation trips. Specifically, it proposes a personality index intended to measure romanticism versus classicism (RC) and reports an experiment that supports both the reliability of the proposed a priori RC Index and its validity in moderating the utilities of two travel features (risk and warmth) as determinants of travel preferences. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Assimilation and contrast priming effects in the initial consumer sales call

Abstract: The rapport and impression formation stages of buyer-seller interactions are critical in determining sales call outcomes. Yet few studies have examined approaches for building favorable salesperson impressions. Moreover, it is likely that sales personnel face negative salesperson stereotypes in a variety of consumer markets. Hence, prophylactic methods for counteracting negative stereotypes may be needed. We examine the assimilatio/contrast literature to identify the likely effect of activating salesperson stereotypes in initial call contexts. In an exploratory study, we examine the assimilation effects of implicit salesperson stereotype activitation on judgments of an unknown salesperson and the contrast effects of explicit mention of category-consistent trait information on consumer attitudes and purchase intentions. We report evidence of assimilation and contrast effects and conclude with research direction and practical implications. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Goal interdependence and quality in services marketing

Abstract: Service quality is considered an important competitive edge because it generates repeat sales, positive word of mouth, customer loyalty, and competitive product differentiation. This study examines the impact of a company's cooperative or competitive orientation and the service provider's warm or cold communication style on customer evaluation of service quality. Results from 83 participants in a simulated bank interview experiment indicate that when the bank communicated a cooperative orientation they perceived it as offering a higher-quality service than when it had competitive or individualistic goals. The warmth of the service personnel contributed to high-quality service, liking the bank representative, future confidence in dealing with the bank, satisfaction with the interview, and willingness to be interviewed by the bank representative in the future. These results were interpreted as suggesting that companies who can demonstrate a strong cooperative orientation toward customers and whose service providers demonstrate warmth will be considered to offer high-quality services. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Market segmentation: A comparison of benefits/attributes desired and brand preference

Abstract: Benefits/attributes desired is commonly considered the most strategically meaningful market segmentation base. However, in practice, problems in product benefit/attribute specification and data collection are frequently observed. This research compares the performance of benefits/attributes desired and brand preference (a competing segmentation base that provides similar information but is more closely related to purchase behavior) on the criteria of segment identification, brand purchase, and responsiveness to marketing mix elements. Results suggest that brand preference segmentation produces more interpretable and managerially useful segmentation results than benefits/attributes desired. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Gender differences in gift exchanges: New directions from projections

Abstract: Quantitative and qualitative techniques are used to investigate both the content and structure of consumer-constructed stories about gift exchanges. The findings elaborate gender differences that predominate the process. Females perceive their chosen gift exchange relationships as significantly more intimate than do males. Females frame the exchanges significantly more often in the context of formal celebratory ritualized gift exchange occasions than males. Males inject more fantasy into stories of gift exchanges than females. Coded measures of the elaboration of the projective stories reveal a significant interaction between gender and assigned role as giver or receiver of a gift, with female receivers having the most to say about their gifts. Several interpretive propositions related to gift exchanges are proposed. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Situational effects on brand preferences for image products

Abstract: The purpose of the study was to provide evidence for the influence of situational variables on consumer preferences toward the image product of men's fragrances, and to illustrate how these situational variables can be used to create positioning strategies. In a 3 × 3 experimental design, male and female subjects provided purchasing preference ratings for, and rated each cologne on, a number of scales related to price, brand image and packaging, scent, and inferred characteristics of the typical consumer. ANOVAs and a constrained unfolding analysis using GENFOLD2 were used to analyze the data. The analyses revealed that subjects' preferences were influenced by the purchasing target (self or others), and suggested that people's preferences may be mediated by person prototypes and situation prototypes. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Service quality and the congruency of employee perceptions and customer expectations: The case of an electric utility

Abstract: Understanding how the quality of customer service is impacted by employees is essential to managing and improving customer service quality. This article develops a model that looks at the relationship between a series of two important customer service gaps. The first series of gaps (service provider gaps) is a result of the difference between consumers' and employees' expectations based on various dimensions of the customer service encounter. The second series of gaps (service quality gaps) occur when a difference exists between consumer expectations and the service they actually receive based on specific aspects of the customer service encounter. This study found a positive significant relationship between these two series of gaps. This significant relationship provides empirical evidence as to the importance of keeping employees informed about the expectations of consumers. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Advertising's impact on children as a function of viewing purpose

Abstract: Children's purpose for watching specific commercials affects the impact of the advertising. Viewing commercials for information, either factual or affective, and perceived relevance, as well as attention, are important conditions for behavioral effect. These factors interact with developmental, gender, racial, and cultural variables, to contribute to a differential impact of advertising on these subgroups. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Exploring the psychological foundations of ethical positions in marketing

Abstract: While demographic variables may ease the exploration of marketing ethics, psychological variables may provide more insight into individual differences in making ethical judgments. This article uses path analysis to explore relationships among cognitive style as measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, Forsyth's ethical ideologies, and perceptions of moral judgments about ethical behaviors in marketing. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.