Showing papers on "European union published in 1994"

The government and politics of the European Union

Abstract: A systematically updated and entirely redesigned new edition of the leading text on the European Union. The seventh edition is packed with new features, accompanied by an all-new companion website and includes new chapters on member state relations and interest representation.

Towards an Integrated Europe

Abstract: Powerful political and economic forces are driving a rapid integration of post-communist Europe, yet short-term political considerations have produced piecemeal trade arrangements instead of a coherent structure. Individual agreements have been signed linking the European Union to several Central and East European countries (CEECs), EFTA to several CEECs, a few CEECs to each other and EU to EFTA. Although the agreements have many similar features, most have been negotiated separately; their coverage differs significantly; and there are no links among them. Is this maze of bilateral deals the best configuration for promoting pan-European growth and stability? How will these agreements and their interactions influence growth, trade, investment, migration and income disparities in Europe? Richard Baldwin has marshalled the best available empirical evidence and analytic techniques to establish a framework for organizing our thinking on why the structure and pattern of trade arrangements matters. On this basis, he assesses the alternative paths towards European economic and political integration. The economic analysis is objective, but political economy on this scale is likely to lead to strong policy conclusions, as indeed it does here. Aspects of his own proposal will be controversial, but it offers a deeply considered basis for further discussion and ultimately for action. All will benefit from Baldwin's insights and the challenge he puts forward for a more positive and consistent approach to the architecture of Europe.

A Democratic Dilemma: System Effectiveness versus Citizen Participation

Abstract: The unexpected rise in opposition to the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 reflected in part an abrupt heightening of awareness about possible trade-offs that the designers and supporters of the treaty had largely ignored. The treaty was intended to create in due time a common currency among the twelve members of the European Union (EU), common policies on defense and foreign affairs, and greater authority for the EU over many of the policies social, economic, and environmental of the member states. (Before Maastricht the EU had been called the European Community.) Increasing references to the democratic deficit in the political arrangements of the EU revealed a concern that whatever other benefits might result from the treaty, they could come at the cost of submerging a national democratic government into a larger and less democratic transnational system. Maastricht presented citizens and leaders (in a country like Denmark, for example) with a fundamental democratic dilemma: They could choose to preserve the authority of a smaller democratic political unit (Denmark) within which they could act more effectively to influence the conduct of their government, even though some important matters

The Effects of Accounting Diversity: Evidence from the European Union

Abstract: In this paper, we investigate the financial statement effects of differences in accounting measurement practice in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom (U.K.). We find evidence of significant differences in financial ratios and the stock market valuation of accounting data. The differences do not appear to be explained by the composition of the sample or by macroeconomic factors; they are predictable, given crosscountry differences in reporting philosophies, and they are present for the components of net income which one would expect based on differences in accounting practice. The differences across countries appear largely unaffected by legislation enacted in response to the European Union (EU) directives, which were intended to create an integrated set of reporting standards to serve as a basis for cross-listing and facilitate cross-border investment.1 This research provides descriptive evidence, from a capital markets perspective, on how cross-country differences in measurement practices affect the comparability of the resulting accounting data. Europe provides a relevant context to examine this issue for several reasons. First,

Jacques Delors and European Integration

Abstract: Preface. Introduction. 1. Prologue: Europe Comes Alive. 2. Inside the Berlaymont. 3. "After 1992" Begins. 4. Organizing European Space. 5. Reading the Non-Papers. 6. Turning Point - Onward or Downward?. 7. Last Sprint Towards European Union. Conclusions: The Delors Strategy at the End of the Day. Notes. Bibliography. Index.

Community and autonomy: Multi‐level policy‐making in the European Union

Abstract: The completion of the internal market reduces the capacity of member states to shape the collective fate of their citizens through their own policies, while the policy‐making capacity of the European Community cannot be increased sufficiently to compensate for the loss of state control at the national level. If European economic integration nevertheless depends on policy co‐ordination, there is a need for co‐ordination techniques which impose minimal constraints on the autonomous problem‐solving capacities of member states. These depend, in turn, on the willingness of member states to pursue their own policy goals in ways which impose minimal constraints on free movement within the European market.

The politics of European union regional policy

Abstract: Integration in the European Community/Union has progressed on three fronts: the creation of a common market; the development of common institutions; and the forging of common policies. Contrary to the expectations of early functionalist and neo‐functionalist observers, the three have not proceeded in concert. Market integration has progressed a long way, albeit in fits and starts. Institutional integration has lagged. Common policies have proved most difficult of all, especially where they have required funding. The budget of the European Union will amount to a maximum of 1.27 per cent of GDP by 1999. There are two notable exceptions to this: the Common Agricultural Policy, and regional policy, now encompassed in the ‘structural funds’. This article examines two issues. First, we ask how and why regional policy has been able to advance to the point that structural funds now account for almost a third of the Union budget. Second, we ask about the effects of this expansion on political mobilization...

Why the European Union Strengthens the State: Domestic Politics and International Cooperation. CES Working Paper, no. 52, 1994

Abstract: Most contemporary theories of international cooperation treat states as unitary actors and, therefore, focus primarily on the functional benefits of cooperation or the collective action problems states confront in realizing it.1 Less attention is paid to the impact of international negotiations and institutions on domestic politics, or to the consequences for international cooperation. This essay offers a theory of when and how international cooperation redistributes domestic power resources between state and society. Redistribution, it is argued, generally empowers national executives, permitting them to loosen domestic constraints imposed by legislatures, interest groups, and other societal actors. These shifts in domestic 'influence have important consequences for the nature of international cooperation. More specifically, I advance three arguments, each of which challenges existing understandings of international cooperation. First, international negotiations and institutions reallocate political resources by changing the domestic institutional, informational and ideological context in which domestic policy is made. Second, this reallocation of control over domestic political resources generally favors those who participate directly in international negotiations and institutions most often. though not invariably. national executives. Third, this shift in domestic rower resources toward executives feeds back into international bargaining. often facilitating international cooperation.

Efficacy of different Rose Bengal and complement fixation antigens for the diagnosis of Brucella melitensis infection in sheep and goats.

Abstract: Fifteen different Rose Bengal antigens showed large differences with respect to pH, cell concentration and agglutination with the international standard anti-Brucella abortus serum, demonstrating the lack of international standardisation. Their sensitivity and specificity, compared with that of the complement fixation test, were evaluated for the diagnosis of B melitensis infection in culture-positive sheep, brucella-free ewes, and sheep and goats belonging to field flocks under different epidemiological conditions. All the Rose Bengal antigens and the complement fixation test had 100 per cent specificity when testing brucella-free sheep or animals belonging to flocks in unvaccinated brucellosis-free areas, but there were large differences in sensitivity between the Rose Bengal antigens with sera from culture-positive sheep or from animals belonging to infected flocks. When using the most sensitive antigen, no difference was observed in Rose Bengal sensitivity between animals infected with either biovar 1 or biovar 3 of B melitensis. The relationship between the sensitivity of the Rose Bengal antigens and cell concentration was unclear, but their sensitivity was related to the standardisation of the antigens with the international standard serum. The complement fixation test was less sensitive than the Rose Bengal test when testing culture-positive sheep. When testing sera from animals belonging to infected flocks with antigens standardised according to European Union rules, no great differences were observed in the sensitivities of the two tests. However, great differences in sensitivity between the Rose Bengal antigens were observed with sera from animals belonging to flocks with low levels of prevalence.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Jean Monnet and the `democratic deficit' in the European Union

Abstract: Relates the philosophy of economist Jean Monnet vis-a-vis his role in the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), which formed the basis of the European Community (EC) Commission. Reevaluation of Monnet's legacy; Criticism of Commission as part of attack on Maastricht Treaty; Details of Monnet Plan; Monnet and the birth of the High Authority; Capacity to exert political leadership.

Is Europe an Optimum Currency Area

Abstract: The debate on EMU has been very influenced by the traditional theory of optimum currency areas (OCAs). The paper shows that this theory is not an ideal yardstick for an assessment of EMU. Its assumptions are not very realistic and its focus on asymmetric real shocks is much too narrow. In addition, observed past real exchange rate changes are not a good predictor of future real shocks in the European Union (EU). In general, the OCA approach is heavily biased towards very small currency areas. Because of these shortcomings the paper develops a monetary approach to the theory of OCAs. In this concept the choice between a monetary union and independent national currency areas is analysed from the perspective of monetary policy efficiency. It can be shown that EMU is superior to national currency areas in terms of credibility, the response to asymmetric monetary shocks and the effectiveness of monetary targets and instruments.

Primary care, financing and gatekeeping in western Europe

Abstract: Primary care in western Europe is delivered by general practitioners (GPs) but their role within the overall health system is poorly understood. The aim of this article is to present an overview of the characteristics of general practice in the context of health systems and to describe their variability and interrelationships. Data were obtained from two main sources: publications of official organizations and EC research projects. The characteristics of general practice are described and analysed with regard to three features: mode of payment, gatekeeper function and practice organization and workload. Despite their focus on general practice as the cornerstone of the health system, western European countries differ considerably in the major characteristics of primary care. There is variability in the ratio of GPs to population and in the extent to which patients relate to individual physicians. Although all countries have universal health insurance, the mode of payment of GPs differs. In some countries, the gatekeeper function of general practice is more highly developed and the use of specialist services varies accordingly. Practice characteristics such as workload, length of consultation, ordering of tests and reappointments also vary with differences in payment and gatekeeping arrangements. In particular, fee-for-service was associated with weaker physician-patient relationships, reduced attractiveness of general practice, more home visiting and longer consultations. Strong gatekeeping arrangements are not incompatible with high public satisfaction and are associated with lower visit rates. However, strong gatekeeping is not characteristic of fee-for-service arrangements. These findings suggest a need for more concerted research that could inform policy decisions concerning primary care in the USA as well as in Europe.

Reciprocity and Retaliation in U.S. Trade Policy

Abstract: The increasing use of activist unilateral policies by the United States to open foreign markets or deter unfair trading practices is highly controversial. This study reexamines the arguments for and against reciprocity and retaliation in light of actual experience since the early 1980s, especially the more aggressive use by the United States of section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974, which gives the president broad authority to retaliate against "unjustifiable, unreasonable, or discriminatory" foreign trade practices. It analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of these policies and the circumstances under which they are likely to succeed or fail. The study contains an empirical assessment of all section 301 cases concluded between 1975 and 1993. It also provides detailed case studies of various trade conflicts including the Super 301 negotiations involving Japan, Brazil, India, Taiwan, and Korea, financial services disputes with Japan and the European Union, the US-EU conflict over oilseeds, and the US-Japan beef and citrus negotiations.The authors recommend against the future use of Super 301 and urge that the United States pursue a strategy of aggressive multilateralism in the new World Trade Organization.

Changing Patterns of Interest Intermediation in the European Union

Abstract: It is Part of Conventional Wisdom That Organized interests have a considerable impact on European policies and that economic interests in particular have had a greater influence on EC affairs than the European Parliament. Nevertheless, they have attracted relatively little academic attention in comparison with that devoted to parliamentary interest representation. This is even more astonishing if we take account of the leading role given to interest groups by the neo-functionalistic approach, which has dominated integration theory for a long time.

Export Competitive Advantages: The Relevance of Firm Characteristics

Abstract: In drawing attention to certain important gaps in the exporting literature, reports on a systematic study of the export competitive advantages of indigenous manufacturers in a small European country The focus is on the examination of potential differences in perceptions of export competitive advantages with regard to firms′ size, export involvement and export market experience The research findings suggest the existence of significant differences in perceived export competitive advantages between different exporter groups in terms of company size and degree of export involvement However, no relationship is established between perceptions of competitive advantages and export market experience Discusses managerial and public policy implications of these findings and outlines directions for future research

Delors: Inside the house that Jacques built

Abstract: This biography is a study of Jacques Delors and his family background, his struggles and ideas, his setbacks and achievements against the turbulent background of the European movement and the growth of the EC. Since 1985, when Jacques Delors became President of the European Commission, no politician made a bigger impact on Western Europe. Delors's vigour and determination revived a moribund European Community. Delors masterminded the Single European Act and the programme to create a single market. He also fathered more recent goals such as monetary union and political union, which the Treaty of Maastricht, agreed in December 1991, enshrined. And he inspired that treaty's infamous "social chapter". A brilliant political opportunist, Delors turned the Community - now the European Union - into a powerful and often intrusive entity. But while his sucesses encouraged countries outside the Community to seek membership, they also provoked a wave of anti-Brussels sentiment in the 1990s. Delors and Margaret Thatcher offer opposing prescriptions for Europe's future - one federalist, the other nationalist. Like Thatcher, with whom he has often clashed, Delors attracts liking and loathing, but seldom indifference. Delors is a complex bundle of contradictions. He is a passionate European who has never lost his Gallic perspective, a master of detail who is also a visionary ideologue, a fervent Roman Catholic who enjoys politics and power. Delors remains a figure to be reckoned with. His presidential term continues until January 1995, and opinion polls show him to be France's most popular politician of the left.

Symptoms related to asthma and chronic bronchitis in three areas of Sweden

Abstract: Does the prevalence of respiratory symptoms differ between regions? As a part of the European Community Respiratory Health Survey, we present data from an international questionnaire on asthma symptoms occurring during a 12 month period, smoking and symptoms of chronic bronchitis. The questionnaire was mailed to 10,800 persons aged 20-44 yrs living in three regions of Sweden (Vasterbotten, Uppsala and Goteborg) with different environmental characteristics. The total response rate was 86%. Wheezing was reported by 20.5%, and the combination of wheezing without a cold and wheezing with breathlessness by 7.4%. The use of asthma medication was reported by 5.3%. Long-term cough and/or morning cough together with problems with phlegm was reported by 12.8%; the prevalence being highest in the most polluted area (Goteborg). When using multivariate analysis, no significant difference in asthma-related symptoms was found between the centres. Women reported cough more frequently, but otherwise gender did not influence symptom prevalence. Our results indicate that bronchitis symptoms occur more frequently in Goteborg, the most polluted of the Swedish centres, but that the prevalence rates of asthma-related symptoms do not differ between these three regions.

Winners and losers: the new map of economic inequality in the European Union

Abstract: This article examines some of the main features and causes of the changing geography of inequality and unequal development in the European Union (EU). The main spatial inequalities in the EU and th...

Policy networks, networks and European Union policy making: A sceptical view

Abstract: The policy network approach and the networks model are the most recent conceptual frameworks to be applied to the policy‐making processes of the European Union and are regarded by many as the most appropriate. This article, while acknowledging their appeal, puts forward a sceptical view about the usefulness of their application to the EU. Three contentions are advanced about these approaches: first, that the fluidity of EU processes eludes their capture; second, that they are insufficiently sensitive to the EU's institutional complexity and fail to recognise the importance of EU institutions; and third, that they underestimate the difficulty of delineating networks involving the EU.1