Showing papers on "Poison control published in 1986"

Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives

Abstract: A theory of norms and normality is presented and applied to some phenomena of emotional responses, social judgment, and conversations about causes. Norms are assumed to be constructed ad hoc by recruiting specific representations. Category norms are derived by recruiting exemplars. Specific objects or events generate their own norms by retrieval of similar experiences stored in memory or by construction of counterfactual alternatives. The normality of a stimulus is evaluated by comparing it to the norms that it evokes after the fact, rather than to precomputed expectations. Norm theory is applied in analyses of the enhanced emotional response to events that have abnormal causes, of the generation of predictions and inferences from observations of behavior, and of the role of norms in causal questions and answers. This article is concerned with category norms that represent knowledge of concepts and with stimulus norms that govern comparative judgments and designate experiences as surprising. In the tradition of adaptation level theory (Appley, 1971; Helson, 1964), the concept of norm is applied to events that range in complexity from single visual displays to social interactions. We first propose a model of an activation process that produces norms, then explore the role of norms in social cognition. The central idea of the present treatment is that norms are computed after the event rather than in advance. We sketch a supplement to the generally accepted idea that events in the stream of experience are interpreted and evaluated by consulting precomputed schemas and frames of reference. The view developed here is that each stimulus selectively recruits its own alternatives (Garner, 1962, 1970) and is interpreted in a rich context of remembered and constructed representations of what it could have been, might have been, or should have been. Thus, each event brings its own frame of reference into being. We also explore the idea that knowledge of categories (e.g., "encounters with Jim") can be derived on-line by selectively evoking stored representations of discrete episodes and exemplars. The present model assumes that a number of representations can be recruited in parallel, by either a stimulus event or an

The Traumatic Impact of Child Sexual Abuse: A Conceptualization

Abstract: A framework is proposed for a more systematic understanding of the effects of child sexual abuse. Four traumagenic dynamics--traumatic sexualization, betrayal, stigmatization, and powerlessness--are identified as the core of the psychological injury inflicted by abuse. These dynamics can be used to make assessments of victimized children and to anticipate problems to which these children may be vulnerable subsequently. Implications for research are also considered.

Health Promotion Glossary

Abstract: The first edition of this health promotion glossary of terms was published by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1986 as a guide to readers of WHO documents and publications. It met a useful purpose in clarifying the meaning and relationship between the many terms which were not in common usage at that time. This first edition of the glossary has been translated into several languages (French, Spanish, Russian, Japanese and Italian), and the terms defined have been widely used both within and outside WHO. The glossary was adapted and republished in German in 1990. Much has happened since the publication of the glossary a decade ago. Most notably, in October 1986 the First International Conference on Health Promotion was held in Ottawa, Canada, producing what is now widely known as the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. This conference was followed by others which explored the major themes of the Ottawa Charter on healthy public policy (in Adelaide, 1988), and on supportive environments for health (in Sundsvall, 1991). These conferences have added greatly to our understanding of health promotion strategies and their practical application, as well as more fully accounting for issues of relevance to developing countries. This was taken a step further at the 4th International Conference on Health PromotionÐNew Players for a New Era: Leading Health Promotion into the 21st Century, which was held in Jakarta, Indonesia in July 1997. Several WHO programmes and projects have been developed and implemented which have sought to translate health promotion concepts and strategies into practical action. These include: the `Healthy Cities, Villages, Municipalities' and `Healthy Islands' projects; the networks of `Health Promoting Schools' and `Health Promoting Hospitals'; the `Healthy Marketplaces and `Health Promoting Workplaces' projects; as well as WHO action plans on alcohol and tobacco, active living and healthy ageing. Recent developments in health systems around the world have given new prominence to health promotion approaches. The increasing focus on health outcomes reconfirms the priority placed on investment in the determinants of health through health promotion. Continually asking the question `where is health created?' links health promotion to two major reform debates: the formulation of new public health strategies, and the need to re-orient health services. The foresight shown in the Ottawa Charter has been adopted by many countries and organizations around the worldÐa process which was taken one step further through the 4th International Conference on Health Promotion in Jakarta, July 1997. This Conference adopted the Jakarta Declaration on Leading Health Promotion into the 21st Century. A number of terms that are HEALTH PROMOTION INTERNATIONAL Vol. 13, No. 4 # Oxford University Press 1998 Printed in Great Britain

Autobiographical memory in suicide attempters.

Abstract: Mood-memory phenomena have been studied using laboratory mood induction procedures with nondepressed subjects and with clinically depressed individuals. The present study examined both hedonic and nonhedonic aspects of autobiographical memory in people who had recently attempted suicide by overdose. Attempted suicide subjects, who were required to retrieve specific personal memories to positive or negative cue words, showed biased retrieval when their performance was compared with that of control groups, but the bias was wholly due to delayed retrieval of positive memories rather than speeded retrieval of negative memories. At least part of this effect was due to inappropriate retrieval strategies that yielded general rather than specific memories in the overdose group and have implications for associative network models of emotional memory. © 1986 American Psychological Association.

Age and Crime

Abstract: The age-crime curve, increasing to a peak in the teenage years and then decreasing, is well-known. Less well-known is that it seems to reflect variations in prevalence (the proportion of persons who are offenders) rather than incidence (the rate of offending by offenders). Age-crime curves for individuals do not resemble the aggregate curve since incidence does not change consistently between the onset and the termination of criminal careers. This has major implications for criminal justice policy since the greatest residual length of criminal careers, and hence the greatest potential incapacitative effect, may be between ages thirty and forty, not at the peak age. Different types of offenses peak at different ages; this probably reflects crime switching rather than the replacement of one group of offenders by another. There is little specialization in offending, but specialization does increase with age. Age effects need to be separated from period and cohort effects. The age-crime curve probably reflect...

Performance models for antisocial boys.

Abstract: VioLit summary: OBJECTIVE: This article by Patterson tested and analyzed three structural equation models designed to examine antisocial behavior in children. METHODOLOGY: A quasi-experimental design was used for this study. The author conducted a literature review of material on antisocial behavior. In addition, the research utilized secondary data to test and analyze the study's models. FINDINGS/DISCUSSION: The research rested on three assumptions of antisocial children: aggression scores for children are stable; antisocial behavior covaries with peer rejection, academic problems, and low self-esteem; and parents of antisocial children lack effective family management skills. The author hypothesized that poor family management skills lead to antisocial behavior in children. He argued that this behavior leads to peer rejection, school failure, and rejection by the parents. It was stated that these factors produce low self-esteem. The study further hypothesized that low self-esteem, peer rejection, and school failure put the child at risk for greater problems. To test these hypotheses the study developed performance models and built component constructs. The study presented the findings from the three structural equation models. The first model was the basic training model. It was shown that this model assumes that antisocial behavior is learned and the initial basic training ground is the home. It focused on parents' discipline techniques and parenting skills and their relation to children's antisocial behavior. It was argued that parents who fail to punish coercive behavior start a coercion process. The study presumed that more effective discipline would decrease antisocial behavior. The findings supported this model. The author felt confident that the model was reliable and robust. It was shown that the data provided a fit to the theory-driven model. The second model focused on the relationship between antisocial behavior and disruptions with peers, school, and self-esteem. The study posited that antisocial behavior's coercive and noncompliant core creates these disruptions. It was shown that normal peer relations, academic progress, and self-esteem levels suffer because of noncompliance and coercive exchanges. The author stated that this is a simplistic model as it is simply testing if indeed antisocial behavior is related to low self-esteem, lack of peer acceptance, and academic incompetence. The research reported that the findings supported this model. The third model discussed variables related to disruptions in parenting skills. The study placed these variables into "early onset" and "late starters" categories. The early onset variables included difficult child temperament, families with social disadvantages, and inept training in parenting. For the late starters category the variables included two problems in parents' family management skills. These two disruptors were stressors and parent substance abuse. Stressors included factors such as divorce, unemployment, medical problems, and daily hassles. It showed that parents' ineffective family management skills initiate the process of peer, school, and self-esteem problems for children. The author stated that the findings also supported this model. AUTHOR'S RECOMMENDATIONS: The author noted that the third model was effective for analysis of single-parent families but not for intact families. He recommended that a new, more complex model be developed to fit intact families. The study suggested that the new model include multiple indicators of support or buffering and family problem-solving skills. The researcher noted that these variables are being considered in current studies. (CSPV Abstract - Copyright © 1992-2007 by the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science, Regents of the University of Colorado) Male Behavior Male Aggression Male Antisocial Behavior Model Child Antisocial Behavior Child Aggression Child Behavior Child Male Child Problem Behavior Behavior Causes Family Relations Parent Child Relations Parental Rejection Peer Relations Peer Rejection Child Self-Esteem School Achievement School Performance Parenting Skills Aggression Causes 03-05

An analysis of risk markers in husband to wife violence: the current state of knowledge.

Abstract: The present review involves the evaluation of 97 potential risk markers of husband to wife violence. Using 52 case-comparison studies as the source of data, markers were divided into four categories: consistent risk, inconsistent risk, consistent nonrisk, and risk markers with insufficient data. Based on this classification, it appears that a number of widely held hypotheses about husband to wife violence have little empirical support. Only witnessing violence in the wife's family of origin was consistently associated with being victimized by violence. Furthermore, it seems that characteristics associated with either the husband-offender or the couple have greater utility for assessing the risk of husband to wife violence than characteristics of the wife-victim. Findings are discussed in terms of the methodological and theoretical implications of current research on this form of adult domestic violence.

Preventing child abuse and neglect: a randomized trial of nurse home visitation

Abstract: A program of prenatal and infancy home visitation by nurses was tested as a method of preventing a wide range of health and developmental problems in children born to primiparas who were either teenagers, unmarried, or of low socioeconomic status. Among the women at highest risk for care-giving dysfunction, those who were visited by a nurse had fewer instances of verified child abuse and neglect during the first 2 years of their children's lives (P = .07); they were observed in their homes to restrict and punish their children less frequently, and they provided more appropriate play materials; their babies were seen in the emergency room less frequently during the first year of life. During the second year of life, the babies of all nurse-visited women, regardless of the families' risk status, were seen in the emergency room fewer times, and they were seen by physicians less frequently for accidents and poisonings than comparison group babies (P less than or equal to .05 for all findings, except where indicated.) Treatment differences for child abuse and neglect and emergency room visits were more significant among women who had a lower sense of control over their lives.

Factorial and Discriminant Validity of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) Scale.

Abstract: The factorial and discriminant validity of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) scale was examined for a sample of 116 parents who were participating in family support programs designed to prevent child abuse and neglect. Participants' self-reports of depressive symptoms as measured by the CES-D were analyzed in relation to their self-esteem (measured with the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale) and state and trait anxiety (measured with Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory). Factorial validity was adequate, and results indicated a moderate correlation between the CES-D and self-esteem and state anxiety. However, a high correlation was obtained between the CES-D and trait anxiety, which suggests that the CES-D measures in large part the related conceptual psychological domain of predisposition for anxiousness.

Applied Physiology of Soccer

Abstract: Soccer is characterised as a high intensity, intermittent non-continuous exercise. Players cover approximately 10 km of ground per game, of which 8 to 18% is at the highest individual speed. In higher levels of competition there is a greater number of tackles and headings plus a greater percentage of the game is performed at maximum speed. The average aerobic energy yield during a national level game is around 80% of the individual maximum. Blood lactate concentration during a game averages 7 to 8 mmol/L. Because of a high energy yield most players have empty muscle glycogen stores at the end of the game, were hypohydrated and also have an increased body temperature. Soccer players of national and international standard have a maximal aerobic power of around 60 to 65 ml/kg/min, an above average anaerobic alactacid power, and a greater buffer capacity and muscle strength compared with untrained controls, yet seem to be less flexible.

Adult sequelae of adolescent depressive symptoms

Abstract: We examined sequelae of depressive mood, experienced at ages 15 to 16 years, nine years later at ages 24 to 25 years in subjects formerly enrolled in New York State public high schools. Feelings of dysphoria in adolescence predict most strongly a similar experience in adulthood. Such feelings also predict psychiatric hospitalization for women but not for men, at least up to the period we investigated. In addition, adolescent depression is associated with heavy cigarette smoking, increased use of minor prescription tranquilizers (among women), more deviant activities and accidents as young adults, and selective effects on interpersonal relationships. The long-term effects of adolescent depression manifest themselves in a reduced ability to establish an intimate relationship with a member of the opposite sex rather than the ability to maintain a circle of male and female friends. The distance from spouse (or partner) repeats within the marital dyad the lack of closeness to parents experienced in adolescence. Dysphoric mood seems to be associated with a deficiency to establish close interpersonal relationships within the family that expresses itself differently at different stages of the life cycle: toward parents in adolescence, and toward spouses and parents in young adulthood.

Increased serotonin2 and beta-adrenergic receptor binding in the frontal cortices of suicide victims.

Abstract: • A statistically significant 28% increase in the mean (±SD) number of serotonin 2 receptors (127.8±13.4 vs 99.6 ±11.1 fmol/mg of protein) and a 73% increase in β-adrenergic receptor binding (14.5±1.5 vs 8.4 ±1.5 fmol/mg) was found in the frontal cortices of violent suicide victims compared with matched controls. No significant differences were found in the number of serotonin , binding sites (109.5 ± 13.4 vs 99.9 ±8.8 fmol/mg). We have previously reported a reduced density of presynaptic tritiated imipramine binding sites on serotonergic nerve terminals in the frontal cortices of suicide victims. These data support the hypothesis that suicide completed by violent methods is associated with reduced presynaptic serotonergic activity that has generated compensatory upregulation of the postsynaptic serotonin 2 receptor sites. The increase observed in β-adrenergic binding suggests that there may also be a concomitant reduction in presynaptic noradrenergic activity associated with suicide. If antidepressant pharmacotherapies specifically downregulate cortical β-adrenergic and/or serotonin 2 receptors in depressed subjects, as has been demonstrated in animal studies, and since these effects would be in the opposite direction of the receptor changes found in suicide victims, they may account for the therapeutic action of antidepressants on suicidal behavior and depressive disorders.

Resilient offspring of alcoholics: a longitudinal study from birth to age 18.

Abstract: This study focuses on child characteristics and on the qualities of the caregiving environment that differentiated between offspring of alcoholics who did and those who did not develop serious coping problems by age 18. The 49 subjects (22 male) are members of a multiracial cohort of 698 children born in 1955 on the island of Kauai, Hawaii, who were followed at ages 1, 2, 10 and 18. In this group, males and the offspring of alcoholic mothers had higher rates of psychosocial problems in childhood and adolescence than females and the offspring of alcoholic fathers. Children of alcoholics who developed no serious coping problems by age 18 differed from those who did in characteristics of temperament, communication skills, self-concept and locus of control. They had also experienced fewer stressful life events disrupting their family unit in the first two years of life. Results of the study support a transactional model of human development and demonstrate bidirectionality of child-caregiver effects.

Health aspects of cannabis.

Abstract: Marijuana seems firmly established as another social drug in Western countries, regardless of its current legal status. Patterns of use vary widely. As with other social drugs, the pattern of use is critical in determining adverse effects on health. Perhaps the major area of concern about marijuana use is among the very young. Using any drug on a regular basis that alters reality may be detrimental to the psychosocial maturation of young persons. Chronic use of marijuana may stunt the emotional growth of youngsters. Evidence for an amotivational syndrome is largely based on clinical reports; whether marijuana use is a cause or effect is uncertain. A marijuana psychosis, long rumored, has been difficult to prove. No one doubts that marijuana use may aggravate existing psychoses or other severe emotional disorders. Brain damage has not been proved. Physical dependence is rarely encountered in the usual patterns of social use, despite some degree of tolerance that may develop. The endocrine effects of the drug might be expected to delay puberty in prepubertal boys, but actual instances have been rare. As with any material that is smoked, chronic smoking of marijuana will produce bronchitis; emphysema or lung cancer have not yet been documented. Cardiovascular effects of the drug are harmful to those with preexisting heart disease; fortunately the number of users with such conditions is minimal. Fears that the drug might accumulate in the body to the point of toxicity have been groundless. The potential deleterious effects of marijuana use on driving ability seem to be self-evident; proof of such impairment has been more difficult. The drug is probably harmful when taken during pregnancy, but the risk is uncertain. One would be prudent to avoid marijuana during pregnancy, just as one would do with most other drugs not essential to life or well-being. No clinical consequences have been noted from the effects of the drug on immune response, chromosomes, or cell metabolites. Contamination of marijuana by spraying with defoliants has created the clearest danger to health; such attempts to control production should be abandoned. Therapeutic uses for marijuana, THC, or cannabinoid homologs are being actively explored. Only the synthetic homolog, nabilone, has been approved for use to control nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Athletic injuries: Comparison by age, sport, and gender

Abstract: Injuries treated at the University of Rochester Section of Sports Medicine over a 7 year period were surveyed. Patients were drawn from professional, intercollegiate (Division III), high school, intramural, and unorganized athletics at the University and the surrounding community. Data on injury diagnosis was available for 4,551 cases, with data on age, gender, and sport of injury available for 3,431 of the cases. The average patient age was 21.6 years, with a peak in the 16 to 19 age group. Patients with fractures had an average age below the overall mean, while those with internal derangement of the knee, patellofemoral pain syndrome, and inflammatory injuries were significantly older than average. Males accounted for 80.3% of all injuries. For both sexes the most common areas injured were the knee and ankle, with sprains/strains the most common injuries. Injuries involving the patellofemoral articulation were significantly more frequent among females. The most common sport of injury was football, with greater than 12 times the number of injuries seen in the next most common sport.

Depression, self-derogation, substance use, and suicide ideation: lack of purpose in life as a mediational factor

Abstract: A theoretical model of adolescent behavior is examined separately for males and females (N = 722). The model hypothesizes that depression and self-derogation may lead to a lack of purpose in life, which, in turn, may lead to suicide ideation and substance use. Confirmatory factor analyses and structural equation procedures were used to examine the model, using Bentler's (1984) EQS computer program, which is available from BMDP. For both the men and women, the model adequately accounted for the data although there were some important differences between the sexes. In response to psychic discomfort (i.e., Depression and Self-derogation), men are more apt to turn to drugs and alcohol, whereas women consider suicide. Conversely, the situation changes in response to feelings of meaninglessness or a lack of purpose in life. Here, the females appear to turn to substance use, whereas the males react with thoughts of suicide.

San Diego suicide study. I. Young vs old subjects

Abstract: • The suicide rate among people under 30 years of age has nearly tripled in the past several decades. We compared 133 suicides under the age of 30 years with 150 aged 30 years and over. After gathering and reviewing extensive clinical information and postmortem toxicologic data, we assigned diagnoses usingDSM-IIIcriteria. A major diagnostic finding was the occurrence of more drug abuse than had been previously reported, significantly more often in the young people. Few other differences were found either between our total sample and previous studies or between our younger and older groups. We conclude that a closer look at the young group is necessary to see what other differences might occur between the drug abusers and other young suicides.

Stress and coping in early adolescence: relationships to substance use in urban school samples.

Abstract: Measures of stress and coping were obtained from two cohorts of urban adolescents during the seventh- to eighth-grade period and were related to indices of cigarette smoking and alcohol use. Predictions were derived from a stress coping model of substance use. Stress was indexed by measures of subjective stress, recent events, and major life events; coping was assessed by behavior-based and intention-based methods. Concurrent and prospective analyses were consistent with predictions, indicating that stress was positively related to substance use, and four coping mechanisms (behavioral coping, cognitive coping, adult social support, and relaxation) were inversely related to substance use. Two types of predicted interactions, Stress X Coping and Positive X Negative Events, were found. Measures indexing peer support, distraction coping, and aggressive coping were positively related to substance use, independent of other predictors. Implications for substance use theory and prevention research are discussed.

The motivation to use drugs: a psychobiological analysis of urges.

Abstract: Traditionally, theories of addiction have stressed that drug urges are characterized by dysphoria, occur in response to decreasing levels of drug or drug effect, and are associated with withdrawal symptoms/signs or drug-antagonistic responses arising from a homeostatic mechanism. However, recent research has shown that urges, drug self-administration, and relapse all occur concomitant with both positive and negative affect, rising and falling levels of drug, and with drug-agonistic responses, as well as antagonistic/withdrawal responses. In keeping with recent theorizing about motivation and emotions, we believe that affective responding provides a readout of the motivational status of an organism (e.g., Buck, 1985). We conceive of urges as affects, whose activation mediates drug pursuit and self-administration. Moreover, we believe that affects are represented in neural networks comprising information on affect-relevant stimuli, responses, and meaning/expectancy. We believe that there are two types of urge networks. One, a "positive-affect" network, is activated, associatively and nonassociatively, by appetitive stimuli, especially appetitive drug actions that activate "GO" motivational incentive systems. Activation of this network is characterized by positive affect, drug isodirectional responding, attentional focus on a dominant response, and enhanced pursuit of appetitive stimuli--especially the drug. The operating characteristics of the positive-affect network, and the associated motivational systems, result in a drug's instating a positive feedback loop. Appetitive drug actions increase the likelihood of the pursuit of appetitive stimuli, and additional drug constitutes a prepotent candidate from among the available appetitive stimuli. This positive feedback loop may account in part for cardinal features of addiction: for example, the great relapse likelihood once any drug is sampled, the attainment of very high blood levels of a drug, and the pursuit of adjunctive appetitive stimuli while using a drug. The second type of urge network we have labeled a "negative-affect" network, and we believe it is activated, associatively and nonassociatively, by inappetitive stimuli or consequences (punishment, signals of punishment, frustrating lack of reward, etc.) and by withdrawal and signals of withdrawal (e.g., drug cues, which during the course of addiction are associated with both direct drug effects and withdrawal). Activation of the network is characterized by withdrawal symptoms and signs, negative affect, and drug seeking.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Friendships and Delinquency

Abstract: Major delinquency theories differ significantly in the ways in which they have portrayed the friendship patterns of male and, more recently, female delinquents. Psychological studies and control th...

Crime, deterrence, and rational choice.

Abstract: This study examines the deterrent effect of formal sanctions on criminal behavior. While most research on deterrence assumes a rational-choice model of criminal decision-making, few studies consider all of the major elements of the model. In particular, three critical limitations characterize the empirical literature on deterrence: the failure to establish a causal ordering of sanctions and crime consistent with their temporal ordering; the focus on conventional populations and nonserious criminal acts, which are of less interest to the question of how society controls its members; and the inattention to the return or reward component of the decision-making process. To address these issues, we specify, estimate, and test a rational-choice model of crime on data that were collected on individuals, gathered within a longitudinal design, and derived from three distinct populations of persons at high risk of formal sanction. The results support the reward component of the rational-choice model, but fail to support the cost or deterrent component, as measured by perceived risks of formal sanctions. (abstract Adapted from Source: American Sociological Review, 1986. Copyright © 1986 by the American Sociological Association) Legal Sanctions Crime Prevention Deterrence Rational Choice Theory Adult Crime 07-02

Unemployment, school leaving, and crime

Abstract: The Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development is a prospective longitudinal survey of 411 London males followed up from age eight onwards. This paper investigates the official crime rates of these males between the fourteenth birthday and an interview at a median age of 18 years 7 months, according to whether they were at school, in full-time employment, or unemployed. Crime rates were higher during periods of unemployment than during periods of employment . This was particularly true for offences involving material gain, at the younger ages (15–16), for the most delinquent-prone youths, and for youths with lower status jobs. However, there was little difference between crime rates just before leaving school and just afterwards in full-time employment.