Showing papers on "Qualitative research published in 2011"

Analysing qualitative data.

Abstract: EvERyoNE who has ever undertaken qualitative research knows that there are multiple complex challenges throughout all stages of the research process. After the initial idea for a research project has emerged and developed, the researcher needs to make important decisions and choices about what methods to use, how to collect the data, how to analyse that data and, in the end, how to present the data in a meaningful way. whatever methodological decisions are made and however the data is collected, the result is usually a large amount of data and it is the analysis of that data that can prove most challenging and can be the most time consuming part of the entire research project. Those new to qualitative research often underestimate both the volume of data they will collect and the complexity involved in the analysis of it. Even for experienced researchers data analysis can be the most difficult part of the research process, but it gets easier with practice and by drawing on the experiences of others. There are many good methodology books describing the multiple stages of qualitative research methods, which can prove valuable for researchers when planning a new project. however, some of the most useful guidance and advice comes from the writing of those who have been through the process and have described their own practical experiences. Reading about the experiences of others brings the research into the real world and extends beyond theoretical perspectives. In this edition of Nurse Researcher the three themed papers offer a useful insight into different aspects of qualitative data analysis. They focus on some of the common challenges facing researchers and how these might be overcome.

Real world research : a resource for users of social research methods in applied settings

Abstract: Preface Acknowledgements Ways of using the book The main steps when carrying out a project PART I SETTING THE SCENE Keeping a research journal Chapter 1 Introduction What is real world research? Design matters Evaluation and change The audience for this book Returning to the real world Beginning the journey Chapter 2 Approaches to Social Research Introduction Postmodernism and extreme relativist approaches The two traditions: quantitative and qualitative social research The quantitative paradigm The qualitative paradigm Paradigms and research questions A pragmatic approach Multi-strategy research designs Realism and real world research The purposes of research Practical value of the theoretical material covered in the chapter PART II PLANNING: SELECTING A STRATEGY Chapter 3 Developing Your Ideas Introduction Deciding on the focus Searching and reviewing the literature Research questions Developing your research question(s) The place of theory Chapter 4 General Design Issues Introduction A framework for research design Getting a feel for design issues Choosing a research design strategy Establishing trustworthiness Chapter 5 Fixed Designs Introduction General features of fixed designs Establishing trustworthiness in fixed design research Experimental fixed designs True experiments Quasi-experiments Single-case experiments Non-experimental fixed designs Sample size in fixed designs Chapter 6 Flexible Designs Introduction General features of flexible designs Research traditions in qualitative research Case studies Ethnographic studies Grounded theory studies Other traditions Sampling in flexible designs Establishing trustworthiness in flexible design research Chapter 7 Multi-strategy (Mixed Method) Designs Introduction The quantitative-qualitative incompatibility thesis The mixed methods movement Types of multi-strategy designs Designing and carrying out multi-strategy research Pragmatism, realism or 'anything goes'? Dealing with discrepancies in findings Chapter 8 Designs for Particular Purposes: Evaluation, Action and Change Introduction Evaluation research Action research Intervention and change Researchers and practitioners Chapter 9 Ethical and Political Considerations Introduction Ethical codes and guidelines Ethical issues Researcher safety and risk Working with vulnerable groups General ethical responsibilities Ethical review boards and committees Politics and real world research Sexism and social research PART III TACTICS: THE METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION Selecting the method(s) Chapter 10 Surveys and Questionnaires Introduction Designing surveys Carrying out a sample survey Designing and using a questionnaire Diaries Sampling in surveys - and elsewhere Probability samples Non-probability samples Chapter 11 Interviews and Focus Groups Introduction Types and styles of interviews General advice for interviewers Content of the interview Carrying out different types of interview Focus groups Dealing with interview data Skills in interviewing Chapter 12 Tests and Scales Introduction Measurement scales Other scaling techniques Using existing tests and scales Developing your own test Chapter 13 Observational Methods Introduction Observation in real world research Approaches to observation Participant observation Getting started as a participant observer Structured observation Deciding on a coding scheme The use of existing coding schemes Developing your own scheme Coding sequences of behaviour Reliability and structured observation Chapter 14 Additional Methods of Data Collection Introduction Unobtrusive measures Content analysis of documents Secondary data analysis Introduction to a range of more specialist techniques Internet-based research Feminist research methods Using multiple methods Chapter 15 Writing a Project Proposal Introduction How to recognize a good proposal The content of a research proposal The problem of pre-specifying flexible design studies Shortcomings of unsuccessful proposals Sources of funding PART IV CARRYING OUT THE PROJECT: ARRANGING THE PRACTICALITIES Know what you are doing before starting the data collection Negotiating access Get yourself organized Pilot if at all possible Work on your relationships Don't just disappear at the end Don't expect it to work out as you planned PART V DEALING WITH THE DATA Collecting the data Analysing and interpreting data Realist analysis and interpretation Preparing for analysis Analysis or interpretation? Quantitative and qualitative data - and their integration in multi-strategy designs Chapter 16 The Analysis and Interpretation of Quantitative Data Introduction Creating a data set Starting data analysis Exploring the data set Exploring relationships between two variables Exploring relationships among three or more variables Analysing differences Quantitative analysis and different fixed design research strategies Chapter 17 The Analysis and Interpretation of Qualitative Data Introduction Types of qualitative analysis Using the computer for qualitative data analysis Dealing with the quantity of qualitative data Thematic coding analysis Data analysis in grounded theory studies Alternative approaches to qualitative analysis Integrating qualitative and quantitative data in multi-strategy designs Chapter 18 Reporting and Disseminating Introduction Reporting what you have found Ethics and reporting Reporting fixed design research The scientific journal format Reporting flexible design studies Reporting on multi-strategy design studies Reporting on case studies Writing for non-academic audiences - the technical report Alternative forms of presentation Writing skills Appendix A: Using Specialist Software for Quantitative Analysis Appendix B: Using Specialist Software for Qualitative Analysis Glossary References and Author Index Subject Index

Qualitative Rigor or Research Validity in Qualitative Research

Abstract: Column Editor: Lauren Clark Scientific Inquiry provides a forum to facilitate the ongoing process of questioning and evaluating practice, presents informed practice based on available data, and innovates new practices through research and experimental learning.

The qualitative research interview

Abstract: Purpose – Despite the growing pressure to encourage new ways of thinking about research methodology, only recently have interview methodologists begun to realize that “we cannot lift the results of interviewing out of the contexts in which they were gathered and claim them as objective data with no strings attached”. The purpose of this paper is to provide additional insight based on a critical reflection of the interview as a research method drawing upon Alvesson's discussion from the neopositivist, romanticist and localist interview perspectives. Specifically, the authors focus on critical reflections of three broad categories of a continuum of interview methods: structured, semi‐structured and unstructured interviews.Design/methodology/approach – The authors adopt a critical and reflexive approach to understanding the literature on interviews to develop alternative insights about the use of interviews as a qualitative research method.Findings – After examining the neopositivist (interview as a “tool”) ...

Qualitative data analysis: the framework approach.

Abstract: Qualitative methods are invaluable for exploring the complexities of health care and patient experiences in particular. Diverse qualitative methods are available that incorporate different ontological and epistemological perspectives. One method of data management that is gaining in popularity among healthcare researchers is the framework approach. We will outline this approach, discuss its relative merits and provide a working example of its application to data management and analysis.

Qualitative Inquiry in Clinical and Educational Settings

Abstract: Part 1. Foundations of Qualitative Inquiry. 1. Introduction to Qualitative Inquiry. Chapter Preview. A Rationale for Qualitative Research. Characteristics of Qualitative Research. The Qualitative-Quantitative "Debate". A Brief History of Qualitative Inquiry. Qualitative Inquiry Today: Applied Research in Clinical and Educational Settings. Building a Research Agenda. Top 10 Things You Should Know about Qualitative Research. Chapter Summary. Recommended Readings.2. Qualitative Research Paradigms and Traditions. Chapter Preview. A Cautionary Note. Philosophies of Science. Research Paradigms. Research Traditions. The Universal Tradition: Case Study. Experience and Theory Formulation: Grounded Theory, Phenomenology, Heuristic Inquiry, and Consensual Qualitative Research. The Meaning of Symbol and Text: Symbolic Interaction, Semiotics, Life History, Hermeneutics, and Narratology. Cultural Expressions of Process and Experience: Ethnography, Ethnomethodology and Autoethnography. Research as a Change Agent: Participatory Action Research. Chapter Summary. Recommended Readings. 3. Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research. Chapter Preview. A Case for Ethics in Qualitative Research. A Brief History of Research Ethics. Ethical Guidelines in Clinical and Educational Disciplines. Key Ethical Concepts in Qualitative Research. Additional Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Inquiry. Chapter Summary. Recommended Readings. Part 2. Qualitative Research Design. 4. Selecting a Topic. Chapter Preview. Selecting a Topic. Research Goals. Conceptual Framework. Purpose Statement. Research Questions. Is a Mixed Methods Approach Suitable? Chapter Summary. Recommended Readings. 5. Understanding the Researcher's Role. Chapter Preview. Reflexivity. Subjectivity in Qualitative Inquiry. "Voice" of Participants in Qualitative Research. Use of Peer Debriefers. To Use a Research Team-or Not? Chapter Summary. Recommended Readings. 6. Entering the Field. Chapter Preview. Entering the Field. Choosing a Sampling Method. Purposeful Sampling Methods. Sample Size. Selecting and Entering a Site. Building Rapport with Gatekeepers, Stakeholders, and Key Informants. Exiting the Field. Chapter Summary. Recommended Readings. 7. Establishing Trustworthiness. Chapter Preview. What Is "Good" Research? Validity and Qualitative Research. Role of the Researcher, Revisited. Criteria of Trustworthiness. Strategies of Trustworthiness. Additional Considerations in Establishing Trustworthiness. Chapter Summary. Recommended Readings. Part 3. Data Collection and Analysis. 8. Data Collection via Fieldwork, Interviewing, and Focus Groups. Chapter Preview. Linking Method to Research Design. Observations. Individual Interviews. Other Data Collection Considerations. Chapter Summary. Recommended Readings. 9. Data Collection Using the Internet, Documents, or Arts-Based Methods. Chapter Preview. General Reminders about Selecting Data Collection Method(s). Media as Method and Source of Data Collection. Using the Internet for Data Collection. Using Visual Methods for Data Collection. Using Written Materials for Data Collection. Using Other Documents for Data Collection. Chapter Summary. Recommended Readings. 10. The Basics of Qualitative Data Management and Analysis. Chapter Preview. Qualitative Data Analysis. Steps of Qualitative Data Analysis. Coding Considerations. Additional "Generic" Strategies of Qualitative Data Analysis. Qualitative Data Management. Case Displays. Qualitative Software. Chapter Summary. Recommended Readings. 11. Qualitative Data Analysis by Research Tradition. Chapter Preview. General Thinking on Qualitative Data Analysis across Traditions. Qualitative Data Analysis with the Universal Tradition: The Case Study. Qualitative Data Analysis in Experience and Theory Formulation: Grounded Theory, Consensual Qualitative Research, Phenomenology, and Heuristic Inquiry. Qualitative Data Analysis with Symbol and Text: Narratology, Biography, and Hermeneutics. Qualitative Data Analysis of Cultural Expressions of Process and Experience: Ethnography, Ethnomethodology, and Autoethnography. Qualitative Data Analysis when Research is a Change Agent: Participatory Action Research. Postscript: A Final Note on Qualitative Data Analysis. Chapter Summary. Recommended Readings. Part 4. Presenting Your Qualitative Research. 12. Writing and Presenting Qualitative Research. Chapter Preview. Developing a Research Proposal. Writing a Quality Proposal. Writing the Research Report. Presenting Your Findings in Student and Professional Settings. Publishing your Findings. Chapter Summary. Recommended Readings. Appendix A. Glossary of Key Terms. Appendix B. Sample Qualitative Proposals.

Fundamentals of Qualitative Research

Abstract: Chapter 1: Genres, Elements, and Styles of Qualitative Research Chapter 2: A Survey of Qualitative Data Collection Methods Chapter 3: Qualitative Research Design Chapter 4: A Survey of Qualitative Data Analytic Methods Chapter 5: Writing and Presenting Qualitative Research Chapter 6: Additional Readings and Resources in Qualitative Research

Qualitative Methods in Psychology : A Research Guide

Abstract: Preface Part 1: Orientations Phenomenology Action Research Positionalities Part 2: Methodologies Observation Ethnography Interviewing The Repertory Grid and its Possibilities Psychosocial Analysis Narrative Inquiry Historical Analyses Part 3: Representations Future Directions for Qualitative Research New and Emerging Forms of Representation Writing Up Problems in / of Qualitative Research Index

The case for qualitative research

Abstract: Qualitative as well as quantitative methods are needed in pharmacy practice research

Interpreting qualitative data : a guide to the principles of qualitative research

Abstract: PART ONE: THEORY AND METHOD IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH What Is Qualitative Research? In Search of a Working Definition Loaded Evaluations of Research Methods Methods Should Fit Your Research Question The Good Sense of Quantitative Research The Nonsense of Quantitative Research The Good Sense of Qualitative Research The Nonsense of Qualitative Research Varieties of Qualitative Research Designing a Research Project Selecting a Topic Formulating a Researchable Question Fitting your Research Question into an Appropriate Theory Choosing an Effective Research Design An Effective Literature Review Basic Terms in Research Design Conclusions Data Analysis Some Rules for Data Analysis Content Analysis Grounded Theory Narrative Analysis Conclusion Research Ethics Ethical Pitfalls Ethical Safeguards Some Ethical Complications PART TWO: METHODS Ethnography and Observation The Ethnographic Focus Methodological Issues The Theoretical Character of Ethnographic Observations Conclusion: The Unity of the Ethnographic Project Interviews What Is an 'Open-Ended' Interview? Why Interview? Implications: Three Versions of Interview Data Positivism Emotionalism Constructionism Adolescent Cultures: Combining 'What' and 'How' Questions Moral Tales of Parenthood The Three Models: A Summary Summary: Basic Issues Three Practical Questions - and Answers Conclusion Focus Groups What Are Focus Groups? Analysing Focus Group Data in Social Science Form or Substance? Concluding Comments Texts Structure of This Chapter Comparative Keyword Analysis (CKA) Ethnography Ethnomethodology: Membership Categorisation Analysis Conclusion Naturally-Occurring Talk Why Work with Tapes? Transcribing Audiotapes Why Talk Matters Conversation Analysis Discourse Analysis Conversation Analysis and Discourse Analysis Compared Conclusion Visual Images Kinds of Visual Data Research Strategies Content Analysis Semiotics Workplace Studies Conclusion PART THREE: RESEARCH PRACTICE Credible Qualitative Research Does Credibility Matter? Reliability Validity Generalisability Conclusions Writing Your Report Beginnings Your Literature Review Your Methodology Section Writing Up Your Data Your Final Section A Short Note on Plagiarism Self-Expression or Argument? PART FOUR: IMPLICATIONS The Relevance of Qualitative Research Three Roles for the Social Scientist The Audiences for Qualitative Research The Contribution of Qualitative Social Science Summary Conclusion The Potential of Qualitative Research: Eight Reminders Take Advantage of Naturally Occurring Data Avoid Treating the Actor's Point of View as an Explanation Study the Interrelationships Between Elements Attempt Theoretically Fertile Research Address Wider Audiences Begin With 'How' Questions Then Ask 'Why?' Study 'Hyphenated' Phenomena Treat Qualitative Research as Different from Journalism Concluding Remarks

How to Conduct a Mixed Methods Study: Recent Trends in a Rapidly Growing Literature

Abstract: The present article selectively reviews the large number of recent studies that have been described as based on mixed methods. I begin by discussing a body of work that has emerged to promote mixed methods research across the social sciences. I then review and critique empirical studies in each of two general approaches to mixed methods: mixed data–collection studies, which combine two or more kinds of data; and mixed data–analysis studies, which combine two or more analytical strategies, examine qualitative data with quantitative methods, or explore quantitative data with qualitative techniques. I argue that, although mixed methods research is by no means new, empirical studies today combine methods in more diverse and, at times, innovative ways. Nevertheless, important methodological tensions will likely surface as the research becomes more self-reflexive.

Five Ways of Doing Qualitative Analysis: Phenomenological Psychology, Grounded Theory, Discourse Analysis, Narrative Research, and Intuitive Inquiry

Abstract: Introduction. Part 1. A Story of Qualitative Research in Psychology. From Innovative Practices to the Call for Methodology. The Establishment of Methodological Traditions. Contemporary Movement, Methodological Pluralism, and Challenges. Part 2. Five Approaches to Qualitative Data Analysis. The Teresa Texts: Thick Description of Living through Misfortune. F. J. Wertz, A Phenomenological Psychological Approach to Trauma and Resiliency. K. Charmaz, A Constructivist Grounded Theory Analysis of Losing and Regaining a Valued Self. L. McMullen, A Discursive Analysis of Teresa's Protocol: Enhancing Oneself, Diminishing Others. R. Josselson, Narrative Research: Constructing, Deconstructing, and Reconstructing Story. R. Anderson, Intuitive Inquiry: Exploring the Mirroring Discourse of Disease. Part 3. Pluralism, Participation, and Unity in Qualitative Research. Comparisons through Five Lenses. The Participant's Response. Ethics, Participant Involvement, and Analytic Methodology. Appendix: Gail's Texts.

From a distance and generalizable to up close and grounded: Reclaiming a place for qualitative methods in international business research

Abstract: journal of International Business Studies (2011) 42, 573-581. doi: 10.1057/jibs.2011.19 It is exhilarating to write the introduction to this Special Issue as it presents an important opportunity for qualitative research to reclaim its position as an integral part of international business (IB) research. The field of IB was founded on a rich qualitative research legacy (e.g., Bartlett, 1979; Crozier, 1965; Fayerweather, 1969; Johanson & Vahlne, 1977; Kindleberger, 1956; Prahalad, 1975; Wilkins, 1970, 1974). Over time, however, such methods have been progressively marginalized in our field as quantitative methods have become the norm. This shift in emphasis has mirrored the broader trend toward more positivistic empirical methods in the social sciences. The field of IB is "multidisciplinary in scope, and interdisciplinary in content and methodology" (statement of JIBS editorial policy). However, as our respective home disciplines came under growing pressure to solidify their legitimacy as scientific endeavors that merit scholarly attention, it is not surprising that we began to take on the norms propagated within our own academic communities that typically equated quantitative data with "hard science". While there are clear merits associated with quantitative methods, the multi-cultural, multi-dimensional and dynamic nature of the field of IB lends itself to a broad range of research methodologies, qualitative methods being one of them. In order to understand the complexities of emergent and evolving phenomena scattered over distance, and the differentiated contexts typical to many topics under investigation in IB, it is often inappropriate to engage in large-scale, cross-sectional studies or reductionist methods in the absence of well-developed theory. Rather, thick description, exploratory research and comparative case analysis that focus on inductive theory building and hypotheses generation may be more suitable.

Qualitative Research in Management: A Decade of Progress

Abstract: Approximately 10 years ago, Lee et al. reviewed the qualitative methods published during 1979–99 in the major US journals in the organizational sciences. This ten-year follow-up review of 198 qualitative articles assesses the progress made in qualitative research in management by specifically considering: (1) the strength and legitimacy of recent publications that challenge any positivistic stigmatizations of qualitative research; (2) the methodological advances in qualitative methods, including the use and elucidation of novel techniques; and (3) the general contribution of qualitative research to the accumulation of management knowledge. By encompassing both US and European journals in our review, we also compare and contrast the qualitative research published on both sides of the Atlantic, stressing what each can learn from the other. We highlight exemplary articles and procedures and make recommendations for the next decade of qualitative research in management.

The place of the literature review in grounded theory research

Abstract: TSRM_A_494930.sg m For those employing grounded theory as a research methodology, the issue of how and when to engage with existing literature is often problematic, especially for PhD students. With this in mind, the current article seeks to offer some clarity on the topic and provide novice grounded theory researchers in particular with advice on how to approach the issue of the literature review in grounded theory. This is done by reviewing the origins of grounded theory, exploring the original stance taken by the founders of the methodology with regard to the literature review, tracking how this position has changed over time, outlining the rationale associated with specific positions and discussing ideas for reconciling opposing perspectives. Coupled with this, the author draws on his own experience of using grounded theory for his PhD research to explain how extant literature may be used and discusses how the nature of engagement with existing literature may impact upon the overall written presentation of a grounded theory study.

Qualitative research for international business

Abstract: Qualitative research in international business has been rare, the main research streams of the field relying more on quantitative methods. This paper first outlines why qualitative research has been scant. It then presents areas, such as theory building, where qualitative research could make a substantial contribution. Third, it reviews approaches to high standards of qualitative research and criteria for evaluating qualitative research. Finally, some possible research areas where qualitative research might prove fruitful are suggested.

Amostragem em pesquisas qualitativas: proposta de procedimentos para constatar saturação teórica

Abstract: A qualitative study's methodological transparency is considered a key factor for achieving its reliability and should be guaranteed by the researchers. Closing the sampling process by saturation is a common approach, but it is rarely made explicit in research reports. Qualitative researchers also commonly experience technical difficulties in objectively identifying saturation. This article proposes a method to organize sample closing by saturation, with a sequence of eight procedural steps for treating and analyzing data collected through open or semi-structured interviews or focus groups. The article aims to help researchers objectively explain how and when saturation occurred and to allow their readers to know how this process occurred.

Infusing Qualitative Traditions in Counseling Research Designs

Abstract: Research traditions serve as a blueprint or guide for a variety of design decisions throughout qualitative inquiry. This article presents 6 qualitative research traditions: grounded theory, phenomenology, consensual qualitative research, ethnography, narratology, and participatory action research. For each tradition, the authors describe its purpose and key characteristics, outline commonly associated fieldwork activities, describe analytic approaches within the tradition, and then discuss strengths and challenges of the approach.

The use of research evidence in public health decision making processes: systematic review.

Abstract: Background: The use of research evidence to underpin public health policy is strongly promoted. However, its implementation has not been straightforward. The objectives of this systematic review were to synthesise empirical evidence on the use of research evidence by public health decision makers in settings with universal health care systems. Methods: To locate eligible studies, 13 bibliographic databases were screened, organisational websites were scanned, key informants were contacted and bibliographies of included studies were scrutinised. Two reviewers independently assessed studies for inclusion, extracted data and assessed methodological quality. Data were synthesised as a narrative review. Findings: 18 studies were included: 15 qualitative studies, and three surveys. Their methodological quality was mixed. They were set in a range of country and decision making settings. Study participants included 1063 public health decision makers, 72 researchers, and 174 with overlapping roles. Decision making processes varied widely between settings, and were viewed differently by key players. A range of research evidence was accessed. However, there was no reliable evidence on the extent of its use. Its impact was often indirect, competing with other influences. Barriers to the use of research evidence included: decision makers’ perceptions of research evidence; the gulf between researchers and decision makers; the culture of decision making; competing influences on decision making; and practical constraints. Suggested (but largely untested) ways of overcoming these barriers included: research targeted at the needs of decision makers; research clearly highlighting key messages; and capacity building. There was little evidence on the role of research evidence in decision making to reduce inequalities. Conclusions: To more effectively implement research informed public health policy, action is required by decision makers and researchers to address the barriers identified in this systematic review. There is an urgent need for evidence to support the use of research evidence to inform public health decision making to reduce inequalities.

Promoting patient-centered care: a qualitative study of facilitators and barriers in healthcare organizations with a reputation for improving the patient experience.

Abstract: Objective. To investigate organizational facilitators and barriers to patient-centered care in US health care institutions renowned for improving the patient care experience. Design. A qualitative study involving interviews of senior staff and patient representatives. Semi-structured interviews focused on organizational processes, senior leadership, work environment, measurement and feedback mechanisms, patient engagement and information technology and access. Setting. Eight health care organizations across the USA with a reputation for successfully promoting patient-centered care. Participants. Forty individuals, including chief executives, quality directors, chief medical officers, administrative directors and patient committee representatives. Results. Interviewees reported that several organizational attributes and processes are key facilitators for making care more patient-centered: (i) strong, committed senior leadership, (ii) clear communication of strategic vision, (iii) active engagement of patient and families throughout the institution, (iv) sustained focus on staff satisfaction, (v) active measurement and feedback reporting of patient experiences, (vi) adequate resourcing of care delivery redesign, (vii) staff capacity building, (viii) accountability and incentives and (ix) a culture strongly supportive of change and learning. Interviewees reported that changing the organizational culture from a ‘provider-focus’ to a ‘patient-focus’ and the length of time it took to transition toward such a focus were the principal barriers against transforming delivery for patient-centered care.

Evaluating meta-ethnography: systematic analysis and synthesis of qualitative research.

Abstract: Background: Methods for reviewing and synthesising findings from quantitative research studies in health care are well established. Although there is recognition of the need for qualitative research to be brought into the evidence base, there is no consensus about how this should be done and the methods for synthesising qualitative research are at a relatively early stage of development.Objective: To evaluate meta-ethnography as a method for synthesising qualitative research studies in health and health care.Methods: Two full syntheses of qualitative research studies were conducted between April 2002 and September 2004 using meta-ethnography: (1) studies of medicine-taking and (2) studies exploring patients? experiences of living with rheumatoid arthritis. Potentially relevant studies identified in multiple literature searches conducted in July and August 2002 (electronically and by hand) were appraised using a modified version of the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme questions for understanding qualitative research. Candidate papers were excluded on grounds of lack of relevance to the aims of the synthesis or because the work failed to employ qualitative methods of data collection and analysis.Results: Thirty-eight studies were entered into the medicine-taking synthesis, one of which did not contribute to the final synthesis. The synthesis revealed a general caution about taking medicine, and that the practice of lay testing of medicines was widespread. People were found to take their medicine passively or actively or to reject it outright. Some, in particular clinical areas, were coerced into taking it. Those who actively accepted their medicine often modified the regimen prescribed by a doctor, without the doctor?s knowledge. The synthesis concluded that people often do not take their medicines as prescribed because of concern about the medicines themselves. ?Resistance? emerged from the synthesis as a concept that best encapsulated the lay response to prescribed medicines. It was suggested that a policy focus should be on the problems associated with the medicines themselves and on evaluating the effectiveness of alternative treatments that some people use in preference to prescribed medicines. The synthesis of studies of lay experiences of living with rheumatoid arthritis began with 29 papers. Four could not be synthesised, leaving 25 papers (describing 22 studies) contributing to the final synthesis. Most of the papers were concerned with the everyday experience of living with rheumatoid arthritis. This synthesis did not produce significant new insights, probably because the early papers in the area were substantial and theoretically rich, and later papers were mostly confirmatory. In both topic areas, only a minority of the studies included in the syntheses were found to have referenced each other, suggesting that unnecessary replication had occurred.Limitations: We only evaluated meta-ethnography as a method for synthesising qualitative research, but there are other methods being employed. Further research is required to investigate how different methods of qualitative synthesis influence the outcome of the synthesis.Conclusions: Meta-ethnography is an effective method for synthesising qualitative research. The process of reciprocally translating the findings from each individual study into those from all the other studies in the synthesis, if applied rigorously, ensures that qualitative data can be combined. Following this essential process, the synthesis can then be expressed as a ?line of argument? that can be presented as text and in summary tables and diagrams or models. Meta-ethnography can produce significant new insights, but not all meta-ethnographic syntheses do so. Instead, some will identify fields in which saturation has been reached and in which no theoretical development has taken place for some time. Both outcomes are helpful in either moving research forward or avoiding wasted resources. Meta-ethnography is a highly interpretative method requiring considerable immersion in the individual studies to achieve a synthesis. It places substantial demands upon the synthesiser and requires a high degree of qualitative research skill. Meta-ethnography has great potential as a method of synthesis in qualitative health technology assessment but it is still evolving and cannot, at present, be regarded as a standardised approach capable of application in a routinised way.Funding: Funding for this study was provided by the Health Technology Assessment programme of the National Institute for Health Research.

Qualitative and Mixed Methods in Public Health

Abstract: Preface 1. Introduction 2. Choosing the Right Qualitative Approach(es) 3. Mixed Methods 4. Getting Started: Study Design and Sampling 5. Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research 6. Entering the Field and Conducting Observation 7. Interviewing and Use of Documents 8. Data Analysis and Interpretation 9. Strategies for Rigor 10. Telling the Story: Writing Up the Qualitative Study Appendix References Index About the Author

How to do a grounded theory study: a worked example of a study of dental practices

Abstract: Background: Qualitative methodologies are increasingly popular in medical research. Grounded theory is the methodology most-often cited by authors of qualitative studies in medicine, but it has been suggested that many ‘grounded theory’ studies are not concordant with the methodology. In this paper we provide a worked example of a grounded theory project. Our aim is to provide a model for practice, to connect medical researchers with a useful methodology, and to increase the quality of ‘grounded theory’ research published in the medical literature. Methods: We documented a worked example of using grounded theory methodology in practice. Results: We describe our sampling, data collection, data analysis and interpretation. We explain how these steps were consistent with grounded theory methodology, and show how they related to one another. Grounded theory methodology assisted us to develop a detailed model of the process of adapting preventive protocols into dental practice, and to analyse variation in this process in different dental practices. Conclusions: By employing grounded theory methodology rigorously, medical researchers can better design and justify their methods, and produce high-quality findings that will be more useful to patients, professionals and the research community.

The telephone medium and semi‐structured interviews: a complementary fit

Abstract: Purpose – The telephone has been widely used to conduct quantitative research in diverse fields of study, generally using survey methodology. However, comparatively very few qualitative studies opt for this means of data collection. The purpose of this paper is to argue in favour of a medium that has generally been second‐rated in qualitative research. It aims at establishing telephone interviews as an equally viable option to other established methods of qualitative data collection.Design/methodology/approach – This paper is informed by the authors’ experience of using this method, as well as the limited number of previous research articles presented on the topic. It discusses its specific strengths and limitations, drawing on a conducted longitudinal study to illustrate key points. Its application to particular qualitative analysis methods, in view of the acknowledged requirements for each of these approaches, is also presented.Findings – Telephone conversations naturally follow an agenda‐driven format ...