Showing papers on "Stressor published in 1994"
TL;DR: The authors found that women reported seeking social support and using emotion-focused coping to a greater extent than men, whereas men reported using relatively more problem focused coping than women, and the masculinity and femininity of respondents failed to moderate the relation between sex and coping.
Abstract: In an attempt to control for the effects of event type on sex differences in coping, men and women responded to an identical achievement-related stressor under controlled laboratory conditions. Although men and women were similar in their cognitive appraisal of the situation, they nonetheless reported differences in preparatory coping. Women reported seeking social support and using emotion-focused coping to a greater extent than men, whereas men reported using relatively more problem-focused coping than women. The masculinity and femininity of respondents failed to moderate the relation between sex and coping. These results are inconsistent with a purely situational explanation of sex differences in coping but are consistent with the notion that men and women are socialized to cope with stress in different ways.
478 citations
01 Jan 1994
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors distinguish stressors, stress, and distress from the stimulus problem, the processing state of the organism that remains unmapped in the psychosocial approach, and the generalized behavioral response.
Abstract: The word stress has many connotations. There are two quite distinct areas of ambiguity surrounding this term. One has to do with the stage of the stress process at which stress occurs. Some use stress to refer to the problems people face (the stimulus), others to refer to the generalized response to these problems (as in “psychological stress”), and still others to refer to a mediating state of the organism in response to threat that may or may not generalize (the black box between stimulus and generalized response). It may be helpful, therefore, to distinguish at the outset among Stressors, stress, and distress—the stimulus problem, the processing state of the organism that remains unmapped in the psychosocial approach, and the generalized behavioral response. The term strain is also sometimes used to refer to Stressors, but I use it, following its original meaning, to refer to the response side of the model.
443 citations
TL;DR: A transactional model is outlined that conceptualizes sexual abuse as a stressor consisting of a series of abuse events, abuse- related events, and disclosure-related events that each tend to increase risk for maladaptive outcomes and proposes that cognitive appraisal and coping responses mediate the effects of these events.
Abstract: A review of theories to predict the mental health effects of child sexual abuse suggests that existing models have not adequately defined stress and coping constructs and have not specified how those variables might interact with other environmental factors. This article outlines a transactional model that conceptualizes sexual abuse as a stressor consisting of a series of abuse events, abuse-related events, and disclosure-related events that each tend to increase risk for maladaptive outcomes. The model also proposes that cognitive appraisals and coping responses mediate the effects of these events, that developmental and environmental factors may moderate relationships between sexual abuse stressors and victim responses, and that victims' initial responses may effect subsequent levels of abuse-related stress. Empirical studies relevant to the major components of this model are reviewed, and the implications of these findings for future research are considered.
428 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the personal, situational, and contextual correlates of coping in a sample of 315 adolescents and found that adolescents who used more approach-coping responses were older, were more active, appraised the focal stressor as controllable and as a challenge, and had more ongoing social resources.
Abstract: In this study, we used cross-sectional and longitudinal data to examine the personal, situational, and contextual correlates of coping in a sample of 315 adolescents. Participants completed questionnaires at two points in time (1 year apart) that assessed approach and avoidance coping in response to the mast important focal stressor experienced in the previous year. We also assessed temperament, perceived characteristics of the focal stressor, chronic stressors, ongoing resources, and negative life events. The extent to which particular coping responses were used depended on age and sex, temperament, characteristics of the problem being managed, and conditions of adolescents' social ecology. Moreover, approach- and avoidance-coping efforts were associated with different sets of personal, situational, and contextual factors. Youth who used more approach-coping responses were older, were more active, appraised the focal stressor as controllable and as a challenge, and had more ongoing social resources. Yout...
231 citations
TL;DR: To address the long-term physiological consequences of chronic stressors, 14 continuing or current family caregivers of Alzheimer's disease patients, 17 former AD caregivers, and 31 control subjects were compared.
Abstract: To address the long-term physiological consequences of chronic stressors, 14 continuing or current family caregivers of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients, 17 former AD caregivers, and 31 control subjects were compared. Continuing and former caregivers did not differ on depressive symptomatology or perceived stress; both groups were significantly more depressed and stressed than controls. Furthermore, continuing and former caregivers did not differ in the response of NK cells in vitro to recombinant interferon-gamma and recombinant interleukin-2, and both groups had a significantly poorer response to these cytokines than controls. The physiological and psychological consequences of chronic stressors may persist well beyond the cessation of the actual stressor.
224 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compared mothers' and fathers' perceptions of stress during the initial few weeks of their preterm infant's NICU hospitalization, and found that numerous stressors were identified across several different contexts (e.g., NICU, work, family).
Abstract: Although there are numerous anecdotal reports of parental stress following preterm birth, there are few empirical studies that document parents' perceptions concerning what is stressful. Of the extant research literature, there are even fewer studies targeting fathers as well as mothers. The purpose of this study was to describe and compare mothers' and fathers' perceptions of stress during the initial few weeks of their preterm infant's NICU hospitalization. Thirty-two mothers and 25 fathers were asked open-ended questions concerning the general experience of having a low-birthweight, premature infant hospitalized in a NICU. They then identified all the things they considered stressful, described the stressor they felt had been the most stressful, and rated the stressfulness of the NICU experience. Results showed that numerous stressors were identified across several different contexts (e.g., NICU, work, family). In addition, there were differences between mothers and fathers in the number and types of s...
206 citations
TL;DR: The results suggest that the interactions among the autonomic nervous system, endocrine system, and immune system are not only amenable to psychophysiological analysis but that such analyses may play an important role in illuminating underlying mechanisms.
Abstract: High and low reactors were preselected on the basis of their heart rate reactivity to a speech stressor in a prescreening session. In the main study, subjects were exposed to a mental arithmetic plus noise stressor. Cardiovascular activity was recorded during baseline and stressor, and blood was drawn prior to and following the stressor for endocrine and immune assays. Results revealed that the stressor decreased the blastogenic response to concanavalin A and increased natural killer cell numbers and cytotoxicity, absolute numbers of CD8+ T-lymphocytes, norepinephrine and epinephrine levels, heart rate, and blood pressure responses. In addition, cortisol and natural killer cell cytotoxicity responses to the stressor differentiated individuals high versus low in heart rate reactivity. These results suggest that the interactions among the autonomic nervous system, endocrine system, and immune system are not only amenable to psychophysiological analysis but that such analyses may play an important role in illuminating underlying mechanisms.
173 citations
Book•
01 Mar 1994
TL;DR: A critical assessment of available evidence on police stress featuring a detailed discussion of stress experiences of women, homosexual and ethnic minority officers is presented in this paper, where the role of routine stressors and highlights stress problems associated with major trauma incidents.
Abstract: A critical assessment of available evidence on police stress featuring a detailed discussion of stress experiences of women, homosexual and ethnic minority officers. Examines the role of routine stressors and highlights stress problems associated with major trauma incidents. Documents treatment for post traumatic stress disorder and pinpoints risk factors. Includes a review of the latest research in Britain, North America and Australia.
172 citations
TL;DR: Responses to a stress inventory were analyzed and significance of differences by gender and stress groups on the stressors and reactions to them showed the inventory is reliable and valid.
Abstract: The purposes of the study were to analyze responses to a stress inventory and assess significance of differences by gender and stress groups on the stressors and reactions to them. The subjects were 290 volunteers who responded to the Student-life Stress Inventory. Analyses showed the inventory is reliable and valid. Differences were noted by gender and amount of stress for types of stressors students experienced and reactions to them.
164 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a model, drawn from research on stress and on self and identity, of the decision to change oneself, which is provided by a stressor-chronic role strain, a life event, or both.
Abstract: This paper presents a model, drawn from research on stress and on self and identity, of the decision to change oneself. In this model, the impetus for intentional self-change can be provided by a stressor-chronic role strain, a life event, or both. Stressors can implicate the self by generating unfavorable reflected appraisals, threatening competent identity performance, and generating unfavorable social comparisons. Any of these effects can reduce self-efficacy, self-esteem, and sense of authenticity, thus leading to psychological distress. Whether this impetus will lead to a resolve to change oneself is hypothesized to depend on six conditioning factors: 1) the identity-relevance of the stressor, 2) whether one attributes responsibility for a stressor to oneself, 3) awareness of and access to structural supports for self-change, 4) the belief that one can effect self-change, 5) the extent to which the benefits of changing are perceived to outweigh the costs, 6) social support for self-change.
151 citations
TL;DR: A review of the underpinnings of such differences, heavily emphasizing adrenocortical secretion of glucocorticoids during stress, and responsiveness to psychological, rather than physical stressors, can be found in this article.
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01 Jan 1994
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a theoretical model to understand the factors and processes which contribute to social work being experienced as stressful, as well as a discussion of social work stressors.
Abstract: In order to develop an understanding of sources of stress, it is necessary to locate the issues of stress and pressure within a theoretical context — to appreciate the subtle and complex factors which lead to certain aspects of personal or work experience being, in some way, distressing or detrimental to one’s well-being. It is therefore necessary to preface a discussion of social work stressors with a brief outline of a theoretical model which helps cast light on the factors and processes which contribute to social work being experienced as stressful.
TL;DR: Accumulated life stress is related to reactivity of immunological parameters to subsequent experimental stress, and possible physiological explanations and implications of these effects are discussed.
Abstract: This study investigated the effects of self-reported life stress and locus of control on reactivity of several immune parameters to a mild and short-lasting interpersonal stressor. Subjects were 86 male teachers aged 24 to 55 years. Immune reactivity was defined as changes in numbers of monocytes. T-lymphocytes and subsets, HLA-DR+ cells, and NK cells as well as changes in (in vitro) proliferative responses of peripheral blood lymphocytes to the antigens PHA and PWM. Multiple regression analysis was used to study the interaction effects of life stress and locus of control by experimental condition on immune reactivity. Life stress, but not locus of control, influences reactivity of the immunological parameters to the stressor. In particular, high numbers of daily hassles were associated with stressor-induced decreases in numbers of T cells and NK cells in peripheral blood. On the other hand, numbers of HLA-DR+ cells in high life stress scorers decreased only slightly during the stressor, whereas they increased in the control condition. The findings suggest that accumulated life stress is related to reactivity of immunological parameters to subsequent experimental stress. Possible physiological explanations and implications of these effects are discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors identify stressors that affect role strain the most, using multiple-regression techniques, and derive a stressor profile in relation to each o f the major aspects of role strain.
Journal Article•
TL;DR: Women identified items related to social participation and the relationship with spouse as most burdensome, whereas men reported activities related to supervision and responsibility as most difficult to manage.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the level of caregiver burden and stress experienced by spouses of patients with heart failure. The population of those afflicted with heart failure is growing, and the home management regimen is becoming more complex. A nonprobability sample of 11 male and 30 female spouses participated in this descriptive survey. Participation included the completion of the Caregiving Demands Scale, the Brief Symptom Inventory and a demographic form. Results revealed that caregiving in this sample was burdensome and stressful. There was a significant correlation (r = 0.32), p = 0.04) between the number of helping behaviors performed and level of stress. Also, there was a significant relationship (r = 0.43, p = 0.01) between perceived difficulty in performing caregiving activities and level of stress. Female subjects reported performing more helping behaviors and more difficulty in performing them than the men. Women also identified items related to social participation and the relationship with spouse as most burdensome, whereas men reported activities related to supervision and responsibility as most difficult to manage. Future research on the demands and stressors for those caring for heart failure patients should include a qualitative component to assess the burden and strain in more depth.
TL;DR: It is concluded that stress management programmes that encourage individuals to change workplace factors through innovation, would be a worthwhile addition to interventions to deal with occupational stress.
Abstract: To what degree do individuals adapt their work environments in response to occupational stress? The research reported below addresses this question through a qualitative questionnaire survey that assesses the extent to which innovation is used as a stress coping strategy amongst health care professionals (community and hospital nurses, administration workers and paramedics; N = 333). Overall, 32% of these workers reported a coping response subsequently coded as innovative, and significant between-occupational group differences in the frequency of usage were found. Overwork, procedural difficulties and dealing with others were the stressors eliciting the greatest number of innovative coping responses. The study indicated that such responses were perceived as an effective and important way of dealing with occupational stress. It is concluded that stress management programmes that encourage individuals to change workplace factors through innovation, would be a worthwhile addition to interventions th...
TL;DR: Discussion of such issues as sex, genotype, stress history, environment, and stressor characteristics is provided to suggest possible ways to increase the understanding of stressor effects on immune function.
Abstract: This paper reviews the role of catecholamines and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system in the mediation of stress-induced immune changes in both human and animal subjects. There is evidence to support the importance of these factors in mediating stressor effects on certain immune parameters, but further research is needed to define the specific circumstances in which they are relevant. Therefore, discussion of such issues as sex, genotype, stress history, environment, and stressor characteristics is provided to suggest possible ways to increase our understanding of stressor effects on immune function. Since the imposition of a stressor disrupts physiological homeostasis, understanding the capacity of the immune system to function under such conditions is of prime importance in predicting disease onset and outcome.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the effectiveness of a school-based prevention intervention to reduce the incidence of negative emotional arousal and other psychological problems in adolescents in response to stress, including depression and suicide.
Abstract: This study examined the effectiveness of a school-based prevention intervention to reduce the incidence of negative emotional arousal and other psychological problems in adolescents in response to stress. The prevention program was modeled after a stress inoculation training program and included a variety of cognitive behavioral interventions (i.e., cognitive restructuring, problem solving, anxiety management training). Reductions on anxiety, depression, and anger self-report scales were noted after training, especially in youths who were classified as being high in emotional arousal, and these gains were maintained at follow-up. The waiting list control group showed similar improvements after they received training. Improvements in grade point average, school attendance, physical health problems, and self-reports of total, daily, and major negative stress events were not found, except for some within-group improvements at follow-up. The occurrence of stress events, either major life or daily stressors, has long been associated with psychological and health problems in adolescents (Compas, 1987; Johnson, 1986). For some youths, stress events occur in the form of normative developmental phases (e.g., transition to high school, puberty). For others, non-normative events which are not common to all adolescents are the source of stress. When developmental changes and stress events occur simultaneously, or when daily stressors occur in combination or in a cumulative manner, then the impact on adolescents seems to increase (Compas, Davis, & Forsythe, 1985; Johnson, 1986; Petersen, Kennedy, & Sullivan, 1991). The identified negative consequences of stress in terms of psychological functioning for adolescents have included anxiety (Johnson & McCutcheon, 1980), delinquent behavior (Vaux & Ruggiero, 1983), depression and suicide (Crook & Raskin, 1975; Lempers, Clarke-Lempers, & Simons, 1989), decreased levels of self-esteem (Greenberg, Siegel, & Leitch, 1983), and poor school performance (Fontana & Dovidio, 1984). While the relationship between stress events and maladjustment is evident, the variables related to the development of some psychological problems over others in response to stress are unclear (Compas, 1987). The effects of stress can be tempered or enhanced by person variables such as coping skills (Colten & Gore, 1991). The relative impact of developmental changes, life stress events, and daily stressors depends on youths' perception of these events and perceived coping skills. Previous research suggests that emotional regulation efforts through cognitive strategies and problem-focused coping on the part of youths are important for managing or adapting to stressful events (Compas, 1987). Adolescents who make cognitive and behavioral coping attempts to reduce sources of stress and negative emotional arousal appear capable of decreasing the negative impact of a variety of stressful events (Compas, Malcarne, & Fondacaro, 1988). Intervention procedures which train cognitive behavioral coping strategies might prove useful for youths who have difficulty managing stress reactions. While interventions have been developed to help adolescents and older children cope with specific stressors (Jason & Burrows, 1983; Pedro- Carroll & Cowen, 1985), most cognitive behavioral training procedures focusing on stress reduction have been geared toward adults (Johnson, 1986; Meichenbaum, 1985). Recently, however, some research has suggested that cognitive behavioral procedures show promise in helping adolescents cope with emotional arousal in response to stress (Hains & Szyjakowski, 1990; Hains, 1992). The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a high schoolbased prevention intervention to reduce the incidence of negative emotional arousal in adolescents in response to stress. The program was an adaptation of stress inoculation training (Meichenbaum & Deffenbacher, 1988). …
TL;DR: Examination of visual information processing under a stressor of recurring loud sound among groups divided according to psychometrically identified stress susceptibility found disruption by stress among susceptible subjects of performance-enhancing strategies of deploying processing resources across the different task components.
Abstract: This study examined visual information processing under a stressor of recurring loud sound among groups divided according to psychometrically identified stress susceptibility. Formal models of task performance were employed to address several issues concerning stress effects on cognitive functioning. Examined were effects on parallel versus serial processing structure, task-wise processing capacity, strategies of allocating processing resources to task components, and curtailment of processing of relevant task elements. Contrary to prediction, stressor presence generated slightly more rather than less evidence of a parallel versus serial processing structure. There was some suggestion of central-task capacity depletion among more susceptible subjects, in line with certain theoretical positions. Evidence of curtailed exhaustive processing of relevant stimulus items was negative. Most notable was the disruption by stress among susceptible subjects of performance-enhancing strategies of deploying processing resources across the different task components (elements of the visual display and within-trial stages of processing). Such effects have received relatively little attention in this research domain; their investigation is shown to be made tractable, however, through the application of selected formal models of information processing.
TL;DR: Clinicians commonly attribute symptoms to a particular stressor, usually the most recent stressor or the stressor that represents the content of the symptoms, which might prevent poor adjustment and a chronic outcome.
TL;DR: The data suggest that the mechanisms mediating feedback at this time of day may be disrupted by repeated stressor exposures, because the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is more sensitive to glucocorticoid feedback in the morning.
TL;DR: It is concluded that immunologic responsiveness to an acute psychological stressor is related to problems experienced in daily life, and that chronic stress differentially modifies the sensitivity of biological systems to mild acute stressors.
Abstract: This study deals with the effect of chronic stress on physiological responsiveness to an acute psychological stressor in male high school teachers. Chronic stress was operationalized as the self-reported number of everyday problems. Twenty-seven subjects reporting extremely low or high numbers of everyday problems were exposed to an acute psychological stressor, and changes in immunologic, endocrine, and cardiovascular parameters were monitored. The stressor included a learning process followed by a teaching session in which a confederate to the researchers was involved. Twenty subjects served as controls. The stressor had no effect on the endocrine variables measured but induced increases in heart rate and blood pressure, which were similar in both chronic stress groups. Analysis of subsets of blood lymphocytes revealed differences in natural killer (NK) and T cell responses in the low and the high stress groups. It is concluded that 1) immunologic responsiveness to an acute psychological stressor is related to problems experienced in daily life, and that 2) chronic stress differentially modifies the sensitivity of biological systems to mild acute stressors.
TL;DR: For example, this article found significant correlations among the appraisal and coping variables across the three common stressful events, conflicts with mother, a friend, and a failure, and concluded that perceptions of control may be significant predictors for young adolescents' responses.
Abstract: Young adolescents (N=146, mean age=11.35, 54% female, 81% Anglo) and young adults (N=166, mean age=20.73, 68% female, 82% Anglo) completed questionnaires assessing appraisals of and efforts to cope with three common stressful events, conflicts with mother, a friend, and a failure. For each event, participants rated appraisals of event controllability, including control over event outcomes, event predictability, and perceptions of causal locus (self-culpable, other culpable, and unknown). Additional appraisals rated included event meaningfulness, duration, frequency of occurrence, and stakes/concerns (concerns about one's or another person's well-being). Employment of five coping strategies was rated for each event. Analyses revealed significant correlations among the appraisal and coping variables across the three events. Aggregate variables were computed and significant age differences emerged from analyses of variance. Results of hierarchical multiple regressions suggest that coping is multiply determined. Perceptions of control may be significant predictors for young adolescents, and concerns about other people may be predictive of young adults' responses.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors tested for mediating effects of trait negative affectivity and trait positive affectivity on the associations between cognitive appraisals of occupational stress and emotional distress among professional journalists and school teachers.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the contributions of seventh graders' coping strategies and their perceptions of the school environment to predicting changes in their adaptation during the transition to junior high school.
Abstract: Summary Investigated are the contributions of seventh graders' coping strategies and their perceptions of the school environment to predicting changes in their adaptation during the transition to junior high school. The students completed measures three weeks into the new school year and again three months later. Resource variables included students' use of approach and avoidance coping strategies in response to a specific transition-related Stressor, and their perceptions of their new school environment. Criterion variables included students' ratings of how effectively they coped with the specific Stressor, and their general adaptation to the transition. Zero-order and cross-lag correlations generally showed that the use of approach coping strategies and favorable perceptions of the school environment were associated with higher levels of perceived coping effectiveness and general adaptation to junior high school, while the use of avoidance coping strategies was associated with lower levels of perceived ...
TL;DR: In this paper, an exploratory study of stress and psychological well-being in British University staff was conducted, where the authors examined stress not only in relation to lecturing staff, but also research and support staff.
Abstract: This paper reports an exploratory study of stress and psychological well-being in British University staff. Unlike previous studies of stress in University staff, this study examines stress not only in relation to lecturing staff, but also research and support staff. Principal components analysis of a fifteen item stressor scale revealed two orthogonal dimensions, relating to quantitative overload stressors and role stressors respectively. Both were found to be related to a measure of psychological well-being. Differences in these stressor factors were found between the various types of university employee; academic staff were found to report more work load and managerial stressors, but reported fewer role stressors.
TL;DR: Intoxication, but not beliefs about having consumed alcohol, significantly reduced subjective anxiety and negative self-evaluation in response to the stressor in both men and women.
Abstract: Male and female social drinkers, half of whom had a biological father who abused alcohol, were exposed to a social stressor (anticipation and delivery of a public speech) after consuming either a moderate dose of alcohol or tonic water. Half of each group were led to believe that they had consumed alcohol, the other half tonic water, yielding a 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design. Intoxication, but not beliefs about having consumed alcohol, significantly reduced subjective anxiety and negative self-evaluation in response to the stressor in both men and women. Parental history of alcohol abuse differentially affected alcohol's influence on mood, but not measures of subjective intoxication, subjective physiological responses to alcohol, beliefs about alcohol's effects on behavior, or reactivity to the stressor.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the relationship between life events and self-reported depression and found that the relation between stress and depression is moderated by the type of stress, such as health-related stress, financial stress, household changes, spouse-partner stress, family violence stress, and substance abuse stress.
Abstract: The bidirectional relation between life events and self-reported depression was examined across a 1-year period. With Time 1 depression controlled, Time 2 stress accounted for an additional 10% of Time 2 depressive symptoms. Health-related stress, family violence, and financial stress at Time 2 predicted Time 2 depression after control for Time 1 depression. With Time 1 stress controlled, Time 2 depression accounted for 8% of the variance in Time 2 stress. Time 2 depression predicted Time 2 health-related stress, financial stress, household changes, spouse-partner stress, family violence stress, and substance abuse stress, controlling for each of these stressors at Time 1. The results describe a complex relation between stress and depression and suggest that the relation between stress and depression is moderated by the type of stress. Language: en
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors consider off-campus stressors that affect faculty and examine sources of stress perceived by different faculty groups, while different groups of faculty perceive varying stress levels, they also perceive different dimensions of stress.
Abstract: This study considers off-campus stressors that affect faculty and examines sources of stress perceived by different faculty groups. Its database is some 35,500 respondents to a recent national survey of faculty at nearly 400 colleges and universities. While different groups of faculty perceive varying stress levels , they also perceive different dimensions of stress. The paper discusses implications for practice and future research.
TL;DR: A proposed causal model based upon Lazarus' theory of psychological stress and coping was tested in a sample of 75 persons disabled by stroke and found the buffering effect of social support was related to the level of disability of the stroke person.
Abstract: A proposed causal model based upon Lazarus' theory of psychological stress and coping was tested in a sample of 75 persons disabled by stroke. Coping constraints such as demographic and stroke factors were hypothesized to affect resources (perceived availability of social support, perceived effectiveness of social support, social contact), stress appraisal, coping behavior and coping effectiveness. Although the model did not fit the data, several path coefficients within the model were statistically significant. Functional status was positively related to resources and negatively related to the stressor. Resources were negatively related to the stressor and positively related to coping effectiveness. It was noted that the buffering effect of social support was related to the level of disability of the stroke person. Persons with functional disability following stroke also had decreased social contact, perceived less availability of social resources and increased threat to physical well-being, and had reduced coping effectiveness.