Showing papers on "Verbal reasoning published in 2018"

Longitudinal Analysis of Music Education on Executive Functions in Primary School Children

Abstract: Background: Research on the effects of music education on cognitive abilities has generated increasing interest across the scientific community. Nonetheless, longitudinal studies investigating the effects of structured music education on cognitive sub-functions are still rare. Prime candidates for investigating a relationship between academic achievement and music education appear to be executive functions such as planning, working memory, and inhibition. Methods: One hundred and forty-seven primary school children, Mage = 6.4 years, SD = 0.65 were followed for 2.5 years. Participants were randomized into four groups: two music intervention groups, one active visual arts group, and a no arts control group. Neuropsychological tests assessed verbal intelligence and executive functions. Additionally, a national pupil monitor provided data on academic performance. Results: Children in the visual arts group perform better on visuospatial memory tasks as compared to the three other conditions. However, the test scores on inhibition, planning and verbal intelligence increased significantly in the two music groups over time as compared to the visual art and no arts controls. Mediation analysis with executive functions and verbal IQ as mediator for academic performance have shown a possible far transfer effect from executive sub-function to academic performance scores. Discussion: The present results indicate a positive influence of long-term music education on cognitive abilities such as inhibition and planning. Of note, following a two-and-a-half year long visual arts program significantly improves scores on a visuospatial memory task. All results combined, this study supports a far transfer effect from music education to academic achievement mediated by executive sub-functions.

Neurocognitive Functioning in Depressed Young People: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Abstract: Background: Depression is among the most common mental health problems for young people. In adults, depression is associated with neurocognitive deficits that reduce the effectiveness of treatment and impair educational and vocational functioning. Compared to adults, less is known about the neurocognitive functioning of young people with depression, and existing research has reported inconsistent findings. Method: This systematic review and meta-analysis synthesized the literature on neurocognitive functioning in currently depressed youth aged 12–25 years in comparison to healthy controls. Results: Following a systematic review of the literature, 23 studies were included in the meta-analysis. Poorer performance in the domains of attention (SMD: .50, 95% CI: .18–.83, p = .002), verbal memory (SMD: .78, 95% CI: .50–1.0, p < .001), visual memory (SMD: .65, 95% CI: .30–.99, p < .001), verbal reasoning/knowledge (SMD: .46; 95% CI: .14–.79; p < 0.001) and IQ (SMD: .32; 95% CI: .08–.56; p = 0.01) were identified in depressed youth. Relative weaknesses in processing speed/reaction time and verbal learning were also evident, however, these findings disappeared when the quality of studies was controlled for. Moderator analysis showed a tendency for poorer set-shifting ability in younger depressed participants relative to controls (although non-significant; p = .05). Moderator analysis of medication status showed taking medication was associated with poorer attentional functioning compared to those not taking medication. Conclusion: The findings suggest that currently depressed young people display a range of neurocognitive weaknesses which may impact treatment engagement and outcome. The findings support the need to consider neurocognitive functioning when treating youth with depression.

Cognitive functioning in systemic lupus erythematosus: a meta-analysis.

Abstract: Cognitive deficits are common in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) regardless of overt neuropsychiatric involvement; however, a clear neuropsychological profile of SLE has not emerged. This study undertook a literature search of the PubMed, Scopus and Ovid (PsychINFO) databases for studies investigating cognitive alterations in SLE, using standardized neuropsychological (NP) measures. The data were analysed using meta-analytical procedures. The results support the observation that relative to healthy controls, SLE (regardless of overt neuropsychiatric involvement) is associated with statistically significant, small effect-sized deficits in visual attention, cognitive fluency, immediate visual memory and visual reasoning. Moreover, the results support a gradient of cognitive disturbance in SLE with significantly greater cognitive impairment in NPSLE patients relative to non-NPSLE patients. Medium-sized deficits were observed in NPSLE patients relative to healthy controls across the domains of: complex attention, delayed verbal memory, language and verbal reasoning (with small or non-significant differences observed in non-NPSLE patients relative to healthy controls). These results are relevant to the understanding, assessment and rehabilitation of patients living with SLE, with or without overt neuropsychiatric involvement.

Impact of frequency of internet use on development of brain structures and verbal intelligence: Longitudinal analyses.

Abstract: Excessive internet use is shown to be cross sectionally associated with lower cognitive functioning and reduced volume of several brain areas. However, the effects of daily internet use on the development of verbal intelligence and brain structures have not been investigated. Here, we cross sectionally examined the effects of the frequency of internet use on regional gray/white matter volume (rGMV/rWMV) and verbal intelligence as well as their longitudinal changes after 3.0 ± 0.3 (standard deviation) years in a large sample of children recruited from the general population (mean age, 11.2 ± 3.1 years; range, 5.7-18.4 years). Although there were no significant associations in cross sectional analyses, a higher frequency of internet use was found to be associated with decrease of verbal intelligence and smaller increase in rGMV and rWMV of widespread brain areas after a few years in longitudinal analyses. These areas involve areas related to language processing, attention and executive functions, emotion, and reward. In conclusion, frequent internet use is directly or indirectly associated with decrease of verbal intelligence and development to smaller gray matter volume at later stages.

The link between deductive reasoning and mathematics

Abstract: Recent studies have shown that deductive reasoning skills (including transitive and conditional inferences) are related to mathematical abilities. Nevertheless, so far the links between mathematica...

Online assessment of risk factors for dementia and cognitive function in healthy adults

Abstract: Objective Several potentially modifiable risk factors for cognitive decline and dementia have been identified, including low educational attainment, smoking, diabetes, physical inactivity, hypertension, midlife obesity, depression, and perceived social isolation. Managing these risk factors in late midlife and older age may help reduce the risk of dementia; however, it is unclear whether these factors also relate to cognitive performance in older individuals without dementia. Method Data from 14 201 non‐demented individuals aged >50 years who enrolled in the online PROTECT study were used to examine the relationship between cognitive function and known modifiable risk factors for dementia. Multivariate regression analyses were conducted on 4 cognitive outcomes assessing verbal and spatial working memory, visual episodic memory, and verbal reasoning. Results Increasing age was associated with reduced performance across all tasks. Higher educational achievement, the presence of a close confiding relationship, and moderate alcohol intake were associated with benefits across all 4 cognitive tasks, and exercise was associated with better performance on verbal reasoning and verbal working memory tasks. A diagnosis of depression was negatively associated with performance on visual episodic memory and working memory tasks, whereas being underweight negatively affected performance on all tasks apart from verbal working memory. A history of stroke was negatively associated with verbal reasoning and working memory performance. Conclusion Known modifiable risk factors for dementia are associated with cognitive performance in non‐demented individuals in late midlife and older age. This provides further support for public health interventions that seek to manage these risk factors across the lifespan.

A New Look to a Classic Issue: Reasoning and Academic Achievement at Secondary School.

Abstract: Higher-order thinking abilities such as abstract reasoning and meaningful school learning occur sequentially. The fulfillment of these tasks demands that people activate and use all of their working memory resources in a controlled and supervised way. The aims of this work were: (a) to study the interplay between two new reasoning measures, one mathematical (Cognitive Reflection Test) and the other verbal (Deductive Reasoning Test), and a third classical visuo-spatial reasoning measure (Raven Progressive Matrices Test); and (b) to investigate the relationship between these measures and academic achievement. Fifty-one 4th grade secondary school students participated in the experiment and completed the three reasoning tests. Academic achievement measures were the final numerical scores in seven basic subjects. The results demonstrated that cognitive reflection, visual, and verbal reasoning are intimately related and predicts academic achievement. This work confirms that abstract reasoning constitutes the most important higher-order cognitive ability that underlies academic achievement. It also reveals the importance of dual processes, verbal deduction and metacognition in ordinary teaching and learning at school.

Social behaviour and social cognition in high-functioning adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD): two sides of the same coin?

Abstract: Of the triad of symptoms found in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), that is, social impairments, communication difficulties and repetitive interests and behaviour, the social impairments are the most stable and common throughout the lifespan. They typically manifest themselves in abnormalities as reciprocal interactions and difficulties in the expression and recognition of emotions. Although peer interactions become especially important during adolescence, little is known about the mentalizing abilities of high-functioning adolescents with ASD. Here, we compared the mentalizing skills and emotion recognition abilities of 21 high-functioning adolescents with ASD and 21 matched controls. All adolescents had estimated above-average verbal intelligence levels. Spontaneous social abilities and task-related social abilities were measured using questionnaires, tasks and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule. Results confirm social impairment in daily life situations in adolescents with ASD, but were not found on experimental tasks of social cognition. The use of more explicit cognitive or verbally mediating reasoning techniques and a lesser tendency of high-functioning adolescents with ASD to search for and use social information in natural environments are further discussed.

Which Cognitive Abilities Make the Difference? Predicting Academic Achievements in Advanced STEM Studies

Abstract: Previous research has shown that psychometrically assessed cognitive abilities are predictive of achievements in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) even in highly selected samples. Spatial ability, in particular, has been found to be crucial for success in STEM, though its role relative to other abilities has been shown mostly when assessed years before entering higher STEM education. Furthermore, the role of spatial ability for mathematics in higher STEM education has been markedly understudied, although math is central across STEM domains. We investigated whether ability differences among students who entered higher STEM education were predictive of achievements during the first undergraduate year. We assessed 317 undergraduate students in Switzerland (150 from mechanical engineering and 167 from math-physics) on multiple measures of spatial, verbal and numerical abilities. In a structural equation model, we estimated the effects of latent ability factors on students’ achievements on a range of first year courses. Although ability-test scores were mostly at the upper scale range, differential effects on achievements were found: spatial ability accounted for achievements in an engineering design course beyond numerical, verbal and general reasoning abilities, but not for math and physics achievements. Math and physics achievements were best predicted by numerical, verbal and general reasoning abilities. Broadly, the results provide evidence for the predictive power of individual differences in cognitive abilities even within highly competent groups. More specifically, the results suggest that spatial ability’s role in advanced STEM learning, at least in math-intensive subjects, is less critical than numerical and verbal reasoning abilities.

The effect of explanations on mathematical reasoning tasks

Abstract: Studies in mathematics education often point to the necessity for students to engage in more cognitively demanding activities than just solving tasks by applying given solution methods. Previous st ...

Stimulating Scientific Reasoning with Drawing-Based Modeling

Abstract: We investigate the way students’ reasoning about evolution can be supported by drawing-based modeling. We modified the drawing-based modeling tool SimSketch to allow for modeling evolutionary processes. In three iterations of development and testing, students in lower secondary education worked on creating an evolutionary model. After each iteration, the user interface and instructions were adjusted based on students’ remarks and the teacher’s observations. Students’ conversations were analyzed on reasoning complexity as a measurement of efficacy of the modeling tool and the instructions. These findings were also used to compose a set of recommendations for teachers and curriculum designers for using and constructing models in the classroom. Our findings suggest that to stimulate scientific reasoning in students working with a drawing-based modeling, tool instruction about the tool and the domain should be integrated. In creating models, a sufficient level of scaffolding is necessary. Without appropriate scaffolds, students are not able to create the model. With scaffolding that is too high, students may show reasoning that incorrectly assigns external causes to behavior in the model.

Executive abilities in children with congenital visual impairment in mid-childhood.

Abstract: The role of vision and vision deprivation in the development of executive function (EF) abilities in childhood is little understood; aspects of EF such as initiative, attention orienting, inhibition, planning and performance monitoring are often measured through visual tasks. Studying the development and integrity of EF abilities in children with congenital visual impairment (VI) may provide important insights into the development of EF and also its possible relationship with vision and non-visual senses. The current study investigates non-visual EF abilities in 18 school-age children of average verbal intelligence with VI of differing levels of severity arising from congenital disorders affecting the eye, retina, or anterior optic nerve. Standard auditory neuropsychological assessments of sustained and divided attention, phonemic, semantic and switching verbal fluency, verbal working memory, and ratings of everyday executive abilities by parents were undertaken. Executive skills were compared to age-matched typically-sighted (TS) typically-developing children and across levels of vision (mild to moderate VI [MVI] or severe to profound VI [SPVI]). The results do not indicate significant differences or deficits on direct assessments of verbal and auditory EF between the groups. However, parent ratings suggest difficulties with everyday executive abilities, with the greatest difficulties in those with SPVI. The findings are discussed as possibly reflecting increased demands of behavioral executive skills for children with VI in everyday situations despite auditory and verbal EF abilities in the typical range for their age. These findings have potential implications for clinical and educational practices.

Intelligence Scale for children with visual impairment - professional version: performance by type and degree of disability

Abstract: This study aimes to search for validity evidence using a scale for evaluating the intelligence of visually impaired children. The instrument (Scale of Intelligence of visually impaired children - professional version, EPIC-DV) is composed of 29 phrases that evaluate the areas of verbal, logical, quantitative and memory reasoning), which must be judged by the professional within a scale Likert score of 5 points, according to the intensity of the behavior present in the child evaluated. The sample consisted of 10 professionals working in specialized institutions (M = 45.7 years, SD = 13.1), who evaluated 30 visually impaired children aged seven to twelve (M = 9, 76, SD = 1.81), of both sexes and different levels of schooling. Of these, 8 presented acquired deficiency and 22 of congenital type, being still 23 diagnosed with low vision and 7 with blindness. The results indicated that most of the areas evaluated did not present significant differences between the groups, according to the degree of disability. The influence of the variable type of disability was found only for verbal reasoning, with congenital deficiency children performing better. In general, the results suggest that the EPIC-DV can be used as a follow-up instrument, complementary, within a broader process and aimed at assessing the cognitive abilities of children and adolescents with visual impairment, independent of degree or type of disability. KEY WORDS : Visual Impairment, Vision Disorders, Cognitive Fitness, Validity of the Test, Measures, Psychological Evaluation. doi: 10.21703/rexe.20181733ccampos32

Does early executive function predict teacher-child relationships from kindergarten to second grade?

Abstract: Teacher-child relationships have been linked to children's classroom engagement and to academic achievement. However, researchers have paid minimal attention to individual child factors that predict the development of these relationships. In the current study, we examined executive function (EF) prior to school entry as a predictor of teacher-child relationships at kindergarten through second grade. We also examined externalizing behavior problems, verbal intelligence, and academic achievement as mediators of these associations. Data were from the Family Life Project, a prospective, longitudinal sample of N = 1,292 families from predominantly low-socioeconomic status (SES) and rural communities in Pennsylvania and North Carolina. Children were administered a multidimensional battery of EF when they were 48 months old and standardized measures of verbal intelligence and academic achievement at prekindergarten. Parents reported on externalizing behavior problems when children were 60 months old. Kindergarten, first-, and second-grade teachers reported on teacher-child relationships. Growth curve models revealed that EF at 48 months positively predicted closeness and negatively predicted conflict with teachers in kindergarten but not change in closeness or conflict over time. Verbal intelligence mediated the associations between EF and both closeness and conflict. EF continued to significantly predict conflict, but not closeness, with kindergarten teachers when the mediator was included in the model. The results of this study are discussed in the context of the implications of children's self-regulation for classroom engagement in a low-SES sample. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Exposure to a musically-enriched environment; Its relationship with executive functions, short-term memory and verbal IQ in primary school children.

Abstract: Background Previous literature has shown a putative relationship between playing a musical instrument and a benefit in various cognitive domains. However, to date it still remains unknown whether the exposure to a musically-enriched environment instead of playing an instrument yourself might also increase cognitive domains such as language, mathematics or executive sub-functions such as for example planning or working memory in primary school children. Design Cross-sectional Method Exposure to a musically-enriched environment like listening to music at home, during play or when attending concerts was assessed using a comprehensive intake questionnaire administered to a sample of 176 primary school children. Furthermore, participants completed the verbal intelligence section of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale (WISC III), performed executive sub-function tasks such as planning (Tower of London), working memory (Klingberg Matrix backward span) and inhibition (Go/no-Go task), and a short-term memory task (Klingberg Matrix forward span). Results Linear and multiple regression analyses showed no significant relationship between exposure to a musically-enriched environment, executive sub-functions (planning, inhibition and working memory), and short-term memory. The relationship between an enriched musical environment and verbal IQ has revealed trends. Discussion Experiencing a musically enriched environment does not serve as predictor for higher performance on executive sub-functions, however, can influence verbal IQ.

Aligning Predictor-Criterion Bandwidths: Specific Abilities as Predictors of Specific Performance.

Abstract: The purpose of the current study is to compare the extent to which general and specific abilities predict academic performances that are also varied in breadth (i.e., general performance and specific performance). The general and specific constructs were assumed to vary only in breadth, not order, and two data analytic approaches (i.e., structural equation modeling [SEM] and relative weights analysis) consistent with this theoretical assumption were compared. Conclusions regarding the relative importance of general and specific abilities differed based on data analytic approaches. The SEM approach identified general ability as the strongest and only significant predictor of general academic performance, with neither general nor specific abilities predicting any of the specific subject grade residuals. The relative weights analysis identified verbal reasoning as contributing more than general ability, or other specific abilities, to the explained variance in general academic performance. Verbal reasoning also contributed to most of the explained variance in each of the specific subject grades. These results do not provide support for the utility of predictor-criterion alignment, but they do provide evidence that both general and specific abilities can serve as useful predictors of performance.

Stimulating Reflection and Self-correcting Reasoning Through Argument Mapping: Three Approaches

Abstract: A large body of research in cognitive science differentiates human reasoning into two types: fast, intuitive, and emotional “System 1” thinking, and slower, more reflective “System 2” reasoning. According to this research, human reasoning is by default fast and intuitive, but that means that it is prone to error and biases that cloud our judgments and decision making. To improve the quality of reasoning, critical thinking education should develop strategies to slow it down and to become more reflective. The goal of such education should be to enable and motivate students to identify weaknesses, gaps, biases, and limiting perspectives in their own reasoning and to correct them. This contribution discusses how this goal could be achieved with regard to reasoning that involves the construction of arguments; or more precisely: how computer-supported argument visualization (CSAV) tools could be designed that support reflection on the quality of arguments and their improvement. Three types of CSAV approaches are distinguished that focus on reflection and self-correcting reasoning. The first one is to trigger reflection by confronting the user with specific questions that direct attention to critical points. The second approach uses templates that, on the one hand, provide a particular structure to reason about an issue by means of arguments and, on the other, include prompts to enter specific items. And a third approach is realized in specifically designed user guidance (“scripts”) that attempts to trigger reflection and self-correction. These types of approaches are currently realized only in very few CSAV tools. In order to inform the future development of what I call reflection tools, this article discusses the potential and limitations of these types and tools with regard to five explanations of the observation that students hardly ever engage in substantial revisions of what they wrote: a lack of strategies how to do it; cognitive overload; certain epistemic beliefs; myside bias; and over-confidence in the quality of one’s own reasoning. The question is: To what degree can each of the CSAV approaches and tools address these five potential obstacles to reflection and self-correction?

Does It Matter How One Assesses Moral Reasoning? Differences (Biases) in the Recognition Versus Formulation Tasks:

Abstract: Most business ethics scholars interested in understanding individual moral cognition or reasoning rely on the Defining Issues Test (DIT) They typically report that managers and business students e

An analysis of cognitive functioning of children and youth with type 1 diabetes (T1DM) in the context of glycemic control.

Abstract: OBJECTIVE The aim of the study was to evaluate the cognitive functioning of children and youth with type 1 diabetes (T1DM). PATIENTS AND METHODS The study included 68 children with type 1 diabetes, aged 6-17 years, divided into 3 groups according to the level of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c): group 1: HbA1c ≤ 6.0-7.5%; group 2: HbA1c 7.6-8.5%; group 3: HbA1c over 8.6%. Wechsler's intelligence scale (WISC-R), the Trail of 10 words and Brickenkamp's and Zillmer's d2 Test of Attention were used to assess cognitive functioning. RESULTS The research demonstrated a significant influence of low, medium or high glycaemic control on lowering the general level of functioning in verbal intelligence, and in WISC-R subtests: information, vocabulary, comprehension, number sequencing and block design. CONCLUSIONS Children with type 1 diabetes mellitus can experience difficulties in cognitive functioning, as a consequence of high HbA1c. Additional research, involving a larger group of patients and a wider age range when the disease was diagnosed, will enable further findings on the occurrence of cognitive impairment in T1DM.

Analogy-Enhanced Instruction: Effects on Reasoning Skills in Science.

Abstract: The study examined the reasoning skills of first year high school students afterlearning general science concepts through analogies. Two intact heterogeneoussections were randomly assigned to Analogy-Enhanced Instruction (AEI) group andNon Analogy-Enhanced (NAEI) group. Various analogies were incorporated in thelessons of the AEI group for eight weeks. The Scientific Reasoning Test (SRT) wasadministered to assess the students’ reasoning skills before and after theintervention. The group exposed to AEI was expected to have a higher mean scorein the SRT. However, no significant difference was found on the posttest meanscore of the AEI and NAEI groups. Also, no significant difference was found on thetwo groups’ posttest mean scores in each of the five reasoning skills (conservationof mass and volume, proportional reasoning, identification and control ofvariables, probabilistic reasoning and correlational reasoning). The study hasimplication for researchers who are interested to replicate it.

Intellectual Profile of Adolescents with Headache: A Case-Control Study Using the WISC-IV.

Abstract: There are few literature evidences about the intellectual profile of adolescents with headache and no study has used the fourth edition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV) in patients with a diagnosis of headache according to the ICDH-III-beta. We recruited 30 patients (age 11-14 years; male: female = 1: 2) seen for headache in a tertiary center in Northern Italy and 30 healthy controls matched for age and sex, recruited in a public school from the same geographic area. The diagnosis of headache was done according to the ICHD-III criteria (beta version): the case group was composed of 16 patients with migraine and 14 with tension-type headache. Cognitive functioning was assessed using the WISC-IV. Recruited patients with idiopathic headache diagnosis had on average a cognitive function within the normal range. We found no statistically significant differences in the total Intellective Quotient comparing patients with headache and controls; the Working Memory index was however lower in patients with headache (p = 0.012) and in particular we found a lower Digit Span (p <0.001). We also found a borderline statistical difference (p = 0.051) between case and controls CVI (Verbal Comprehension Index), which was due to a lower score in the Similarities subtest (p <0.001). Our results suggest that, although within normal limits, cognitive functioning of adolescents with headache differs from that of healthy peers regarding memory and verbal skills. The Working Memory Index is related to the subject's ability to store new information and keep them in short-term memory, to maintain focused attention and to manipulate them to find solutions. The difference in Similarities is also important because it provides a measure of the level of verbal reasoning and concept formation; it is also a measure of verbal abstract thinking skills relevant for language development, lexical knowledge, auditory comprehension, memory and ability to discriminate between essential and non-essential characteristics. Our data, in keep with previous findings, suggest the need for further researches in order to better understand the pathogenesis of these difficulties and obtain ideas for an adequate rehabilitative treatment.

Analysis of Institutional Competitiveness of Junior High Schools through the Admission Test to High School Education

Abstract: This descriptive and correlational research studies 15,658 students from 335 secondary schools in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico, through the results of the examination of admission to high school education (National High School Admission Test - EXANI I from the National Assessment Center for Education - CENEVAL) on logical-mathematical and verbal reasoning, mathematics and Spanish, comparing along the variables of sex, system (public or private), type of school of origin (there are seven types) and ranking of grades, with which, the main objective is to identify levels of institutional competitiveness. The main findings of the research were: (i) private schools, in comparison with public ones, showed percentages of more favorable grades (60.54 and 43.58 respectively); (ii) influence of the academic average of the students in the result of the examination of admission (correlation of .0403; (iii) greater competence in the area of ​​verbal reasoning (56.47) compared to logical-mathematical reasoning (55.69); and (iv) the identification of a small number of secondary schools considered as having sufficient institutional competitiveness (11 schools, equivalent to 3.28% of the total).

Revealing hidden talents: The development, use, and benefit of VESPARCH.

Abstract: Background School attainment tests and Cognitive Abilities Tests are used in the United Kingdom to set targets for educational outcome. Whilst these are good predictors, they depend not only on basic ability but also on learnt knowledge and skills, such as reading. Method and Aims VESPARCH is an online group test of verbal and spatial reasoning, which we propose gives a measure that more closely approximates to basic ability – fluid intelligence. The verbal test contains highly familiar words, does not require the child to read them, is untimed, and provides detailed feedback on five practice questions for each part of the test. The tests – one suitable and standardized for children aged 7–9 years and one for children aged 10–12 years – have good test–retest reliability and validity and conform to the Rasch model. Comparison of VESPARCH scores with school attainment measures allows identification of those students who are underachieving academically relative to their potential. The matched nature of the verbal and spatial tests allows reasoning ability in the two domains to be compared; those with much higher spatial scores might be expected to do well in STEM subjects. Conclusion VESPARCH can be used alongside current school tests to ensure targeted teaching and encouragement for every child.