Williams College

About: Williams College is a education organization based out in Williamstown, Massachusetts, United States. It is known for research contribution in the topics: Population & Politics. The organization has 2257 authors who have published 5015 publications receiving 213160 citations. The organization is also known as: Williams.

When and why a failed test potentiates the effectiveness of subsequent study.

Abstract: Teachers and trainers often try to prevent learners from making errors, but recent findings (e.g., Kornell, Hays, & Bjork, 2009) have demonstrated that tests can potentiate subsequent learning even when the correct answer is difficult or impossible to generate (e.g., "What is Nate Kornell's middle name?"). In 3 experiments, we explored when and why a failed test enhances learning. We found that failed tests followed by immediate feedback produced greater retention than did a presentation-only condition. Failed tests followed by delayed feedback, by contrast, did not produce such a benefit-except when the direction of the final test was reversed (i.e., the participants were provided with the target and had to produce the original cue). Our findings suggest that generating an incorrect response to a cue both activates the semantic network associated with the cue and suppresses the correct response. These processes appear to have 2 consequences: If feedback is presented immediately, the semantic activation enhances the mapping of the cue to the correct response; if feedback is presented at a delay, the prior suppression boosts the learning of the suppressed response.

The Bear Market in Political Socialization and the Costs of Misunderstood Psychological Theories

Abstract: Not so long ago, political scientists were enthusiastically proclaiming that political socialization was a growth stock. But interest in the subfield has slackened, and the bull market has turned bearish. This article argues that a central cause of this recent scholarly neglect is a lack of theoretical confidence. Political socialization has been branded as less worthy of study largely because it is difficult to study and to understand in the absence of an explicit psychological model of learning. A strong theoretical rationale must be developed to return the subfield to its deserved place of priority. Such an endeavor is also Justified by the new popularity of the Piagetian model, which is inappropriate for understanding political learning because it emphasizes the foremost growth of logical operations and the individual as the prime motivating force. Another model, that of L. S. Vygotsky, is more useful, incorporating many of Piaget's insights without his unrealistic expectations. I outline Vygotsky's cognitive-developmental model, indicate its applicability to the small body of defensible research on the process of political learning, and conclude with a research agenda suggested by the model.

Effects of a hurricane on survival and orientation of large erect coral reef sponges

Abstract: In October 1988, Hurricane Joan struck reefs in the San Blas Island, Panama, where hurricanes had never been recorded. Effects on large erect sponges were dramatic. For several years before the hurricane, the three most common sponges had been studied, providing pre-storm data on population structure and dynamics. Nearly half the individuals and biomass of three species were lost in the storm. The species were not affected in the same way, even though they are all of erect branching growth forms. Iotrochota birotulata lost significantly more individuals chan Amphimedon rubens (57.6% vs 42.9%), which lost significantly more individuals than Aplysina fulva (31.6%). Patterns of biomass loss were very different, with both Iotrochota and Aplysina suffering losses of about 50%, but Amphimedon losing only 4.9%. Patterns of loss appear to be related to differences between species in the relative proportions of spicules (siliceous) and spongin (protein) in skeletal fibers and by differences in the speed and success rate of fragment reattachment. The incidence of toppling due to base failure varied among the six most common large erect sponge species, with significantly less toppling of the two species with skeletons composed solely of spongin. Clones of Iotrochota birotulata characterized by harrow branches suffered disproportionately greater losses than clones with more robust branches. The abundance of very small sponges, possibly developed from sexually produced larvae, was an order of magnitude higher after the storm than before.

Anger and the use of defense mechanisms in college students.

Abstract: It was hypothesized that experimentally induced anger would result in an increased use of defense mechanisms in college students. As predicted from the theory of defense mechanism development, the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) stories of angered students showed a higher level of use of projection and identification, and the use of these defenses was significantly correlated with the presence of aggressive content in the stories. The results were consistent with previous studies in showing that the predominant defenses of late adolescents are projection and identification, and that men use more projection than women.