Showing papers in "Environmental Sciences Europe in 2011"

Toxicology of perfluorinated compounds

Abstract: Perfluorinated compounds [PFCs] have found a wide use in industrial products and processes and in a vast array of consumer products. PFCs are molecules made up of carbon chains to which fluorine atoms are bound. Due to the strength of the carbon/fluorine bond, the molecules are chemically very stable and are highly resistant to biological degradation; therefore, they belong to a class of compounds that tend to persist in the environment. These compounds can bioaccumulate and also undergo biomagnification. Within the class of PFC chemicals, perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorosulphonic acid are generally considered reference substances. Meanwhile, PFCs can be detected almost ubiquitously, e.g., in water, plants, different kinds of foodstuffs, in animals such as fish, birds, in mammals, as well as in human breast milk and blood. PFCs are proposed as a new class of 'persistent organic pollutants'. Numerous publications allude to the negative effects of PFCs on human health. The following review describes both external and internal exposures to PFCs, the toxicokinetics (uptake, distribution, metabolism, excretion), and the toxicodynamics (acute toxicity, subacute and subchronic toxicities, chronic toxicity including carcinogenesis, genotoxicity and epigenetic effects, reproductive and developmental toxicities, neurotoxicity, effects on the endocrine system, immunotoxicity and potential modes of action, combinational effects, and epidemiological studies on perfluorinated compounds).

Invasive species in Europe: ecology, status, and policy

Abstract: Globalization of trade and travel has facilitated the spread of non-native species across the earth. A proportion of these species become established and cause serious environmental, economic, and human health impacts. These species are referred to as invasive, and are now recognized as one of the major drivers of biodiversity change across the globe. As a long-time centre for trade, Europe has seen the introduction and subsequent establishment of at least several thousand non-native species. These range in taxonomy from viruses and bacteria to fungi, plants, and animals. Although invasive species cause major negative impacts across all regions of Europe, they also offer scientists the opportunity to develop and test theory about how species enter and leave communities, how non-native and native species interact with each other, and how different types of species affect ecosystem functions. For these reasons, there has been recent growth in the field of invasion biology as scientists work to understand the process of invasion, the changes that invasive species cause to their recipient ecosystems, and the ways that the problems of invasive species can be reduced. This review covers the process and drivers of species invasions in Europe, the socio-economic factors that make some regions particularly strongly invaded, and the ecological factors that make some species particularly invasive. We describe the impacts of invasive species in Europe, the difficulties involved in reducing these impacts, and explain the policy options currently being considered. We outline the reasons that invasive species create unique policy challenges, and suggest some rules of thumb for designing and implementing management programs. If new management programs are not enacted in Europe, it is inevitable that more invasive species will arrive, and that the total economic, environmental, and human health impacts from these species will continue to grow.

Endocrine disruptor screening: regulatory perspectives and needs

Abstract: National and international governments are in the process of establishing testing programs and strategies to assess the safety of currently used chemicals with regard to their potential to interact with the endocrine system of man and wildlife, resulting in potential impacts on reproduction, growth, and/or development. Specifically, the USA, Japan, EU, and OECD have established testing approaches and regulatory frameworks with aim to assess the risks associated with chemicals that have endocrine disrupting properties (EDCs). While there has been a large amount of efforts over the past two decades in context with the assessment of chemical safety, no comparable attempts to harmonize and mutually accept testing strategies and decision-making criteria for environmental monitoring and assessment exist to date for EDCs. In fact, many of the current environmental programs such as the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) or the US Clean Water Act do not explicitly test for EDCs, and considering the unique requirements and endpoints required to assess the endocrine potential of a sample, these programs are unlikely to appropriately address exposure to these chemicals. This is of great concern since EDCs are ubiquitous in the environment, especially in aquatic ecosystems. One of most important sources for EDCs in the environment is the effluent from sewage treatment plants. Many EDCs such as the natural and synthetic estrogens 17β-estradiol and 17α-ethinylestradiol, respectively, are not completely removed with conventional wastewater treatment systems. In recognition of these concerns, in Europe, there is increasing pressure to further develop advanced wastewater treatment methods, such as ozonation and activated carbon treatment for a broad application in municipal wastewater treatment. Another issue is the continuing lack of understanding of the environmental relevance of the phenomenon of ED. A great number of studies have been conducted to describe potential ED in wild and laboratory animals. Most of these studies relied on biomarkers of estrogenicity such as vitellogenin induction in males and mild histological alterations (e.g. occurrence of testicular oocytes), and to date - with few exceptions - no convincing evidence of population relevant impacts of exposure to EDC in the wild exist. In conclusion, while there has been a great deal of research and efforts in context with the hazard assessment and regulation of EDCs, there is still a large number of remaining uncertainties and issues. These range from animal rights concerns due to significant increases in the use of animals to fulfill testing requirements, associated needs for alternative testing concepts such as in vitro, in silico, and modeling approaches, lack of understanding of the relevance of the exposure of man and wildlife to EDCs, and the need for inclusion of EDCs in current environmental programs such as the WFD. In this article we attempted to summarize the current state-of-the-art of regulatory and scientific approaches in context with EDCs, and to identify issues and future needs to address current shortcomings in the field.

Systemic risks of genetically modified crops: the need for new approaches to risk assessment

Abstract: Since more than 25 years, public dialogues, expert consultations and scientific publications have concluded that a comprehensive assessment of the implications of genetic engineering in agriculture and food production needs to include health, environmental, social and economical aspects, but only very few legal frameworks allow to assess the two latter aspects. This article aims to explain the divergence between societal debate and biosafety legislation and presents approaches to bring both together. The article reviews the development of biosafety regulations in the USA and the EU, focussing on diverging concepts applied for assessing the risks of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). The dominant environmental risk assessment methodology has been developed to answer basic questions to enable expedient decision making. As a first step, methodologies that take into account complex environmental and landscape aspects should be applied. Expanding the scope of risk assessment, more holistic concepts have been developed, for example the Organisation for Econonomic Co-operation and Development (OECD) concept of systemic risks which includes socio-economic aspects. International bodies as the OECD, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the European Union (EU) have developed the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) as an instrument that includes the additional aspects of risk assessment as demanded by many stakeholders. Interestingly, there had been no attempts yet to link the existing frameworks of GMO risk assessment and SEA. It is recommended to adapt current models of SEA to assess the systemic risks of GMOs. It is also suggested to revise the EU GMO legislation to promote the inclusion of SEA elements.

Aluminium content of selected foods and food products

Abstract: For many years aluminium was not considered harmful to human health because of its relatively low bioavailability. In 1965, however, animal experiments suggested a possible connection between aluminium and Alzheimer's disease.

Genetically modified crops safety assessments: present limits and possible improvements

Abstract: Purpose: We reviewed 19 studies of mammals fed with commercialized genetically modified soybean and maize which represent, per trait and plant, more than 80% of all environmental genetically modified organisms (GMOs) cultivated on a large scale, after they were modified to tolerate or produce a pesticide. We have also obtained the raw data of 90-day-long rat tests following court actions or official requests. The data obtained include biochemical blood and urine parameters of mammals eating GMOs with numerous organ weights and histopathology findings. Methods: We have thoroughly reviewed these tests from a statistical and a biological point of view. Some of these tests used controversial protocols which are discussed and statistically significant results that were considered as not being biologically meaningful by regulatory authorities, thus raising the question of their interpretations. Results: Several convergent data appear to indicate liver and kidney problems as end points of GMO diet effects in the above-mentioned experiments. This was confirmed by our meta-analysis of all the in vivo studies published, which revealed that the kidneys were particularly affected, concentrating 43.5% of all disrupted parameters in males, whereas the liver was more specifically disrupted in females (30.8% of all disrupted parameters). Conclusions: The 90-day-long tests are insufficient to evaluate chronic toxicity, and the signs highlighted in the kidneys and livers could be the onset of chronic diseases. However, no minimal length for the tests is yet obligatory for any of the GMOs cultivated on a large scale, and this is socially unacceptable in terms of consumer health protection. We are suggesting that the studies should be improved and prolonged, as well as being made compulsory, and that the sexual hormones should be assessed too, and moreover, reproductive and multigenerational studies ought to be conducted too.

Environmental risk assessment of genetically modified plants - concepts and controversies

Abstract: Background and purpose: In Europe, the EU Directive 2001/18/EC lays out the main provisions of environmental risk assessment (ERA) of genetically modified (GM) organisms that are interpreted very differently by different stakeholders. The purpose of this paper is to: (a) describe the current implementation of ERA of GM plants in the EU and its scientific shortcomings, (b) present an improved ERA concept through the integration of a previously developed selection procedure for identification of non-target testing organisms into the ERA framework as laid out in the EU Directive 2001/18/EC and its supplement material (Commission Decision 2002/623/EC), (c) describe the activities to be carried out in each component of the ERA and (d) propose a hierarchical testing scheme. Lastly, we illustrate the outcomes for three different crop case examples. Main features: Implementation of the current ERA concept of GM cr ops in the EU is based on an interpretation of the EU regulations that focuses almost exclusively on the isolated bacteria-produced novel proteins with little consideration of the whole plant. Therefore, testing procedures for the effect assessment of GM plants on non-target organisms largely follow the ecotoxicological testing strategy developed for pesticides. This presumes that any potential adverse effect of the whole GM plant and the plant-produced novel compound can be extrapolated from testing of the isolated bacteriaproduced novel compound or can be detected in agronomic field trials. This has led to persisting scientific criticism. Results: Based on the EU ERA framework, we present an improved ERA concept that is system oriented with the GM plant at the centre and integrates a procedure for selection of testing organisms that do occur in the receiving environment. We also propose a hierarchical testing scheme from laboratory studies to field trials and we illustrate the outcomes for three different crop case examples. Conclusions and recommendations: Our proposed concept can alleviate a number of deficits identified in the current approach to ERA of GM plants. It allows the ERA to be tailored to the GM plant case and the receiving environment.

From risk assessment to in-context trajectory evaluation - GMOs and their social implications

Abstract: Over the past 20 years, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have raised enormous expectations, passionate political controversies and an ongoing debate on how these technologies should be assessed. Current risk assessment procedures generally assess GMOs in terms of their potential risk of negatively affecting human health and the environment. Can this risk-benefit approach deliver a robust assessment of GMOs? In this paper, we question the validity of current risk assessment from both a social and an ecological perspective, and we elaborate an alternative approach, namely in-context trajectory evaluation. This paper combines frame analysis, context analysis and ecosocial analysis to three different case studies. Applying frame analysis to Syngenta's recent campaign 'Bring plant potential to life', we first de-construct the technosocial imaginaries driving GMOs innovation, showing how the latter endorses the technological fix of socioeconomic problems whilst reinforcing the neoliberal sociopolitical paradigm. Applying context analysis to biopharming in New Zealand, we then explore local practices and knowledge, showing that particularities of context typically omitted from risk assessment processes play a key role in determining both the risks and the potential benefits of a technology. Finally, drawing from the Italian case, we outline through ecosocial analysis how the lack of long-term studies, further aggravated by current methodological deficiencies, prevent risk assessment from considering not only how GMOs affect the environmental context but also, and most importantly, the way people live in, and interact with, this context. Incorporating frame analysis, context analysis and ecosocial analysis, in the form of in-context trajectory evaluation, into the assessment of GMOs can improve the social compatibility, political accountability and ecological sustainability of its outcomes.

Comparison of four different methods for reliability evaluation of ecotoxicity data: a case study of non-standard test data used in environmental risk assessments of pharmaceutical substances

Abstract: Background Standard test data are still preferred and recommended for regulatory environmental risk assessments of pharmaceuticals even though data generated by non-standard tests could improve the scientific basis of risk assessments by providing relevant and more sensitive endpoints. The aim of this study was to investigate if non-standard ecotoxicity data can be evaluated systematically in risk assessments of pharmaceuticals. This has been done by evaluating the usefulness of four reliability evaluation methods, and by investigating whether recently published non-standard ecotoxicity studies from the open scientific literature fulfill the criteria that these methods propose.

Predicting the aquatic toxicity of commercial pesticide mixtures

Abstract: Previous studies reported on a large (> 80%) compliance between the observed toxicity of pesticide mixtures and their toxicity as predicted by the concept of concentration addition (CA). The present study extents these findings to commercially sold and frequently applied pesticide mixtures by investigating whether the aquatic toxicity of 66 herbicidal and 53 fungicidal combination products, i.e., authorized plant protection products that contain two or more active substances, can reliably be predicted by CA. In more than 50% of cases, the predicted and observed mixture toxicity deviated by less than factor 2. An indication for a synergistic interaction was only detected with regard to algal growth inhibition for mixtures of fungicides that inhibit different enzymes of ergosterol biosynthesis. The greatest degree of compliance between prediction and observation was found for the acute toxicity of fungicidal products towards Daphnia and fish, while the greatest degree of underestimation of product toxicity occurred for the acute toxicity of herbicidal products towards Daphnia and fish. Using the lowest available toxicity measures within taxonomic groups as the most conservative approach resulted in a bias towards overestimation of product toxicity, but did not eliminate cases of considerable underestimation of product toxicity. The results suggest that the CA concept can be applied to predict the aquatic toxicity of commercial pesticide mixtures using the heterogeneous data typically available in a risk assessment context for a number of clearly identified combinations of test species and pesticide types with reasonably small uncertainty.

The booklet "Genetically modified crops" published from the German Research Foundation, does not meet the given claim

Abstract: In December 2009 the German Research Foundation published the booklet "Grune Gentechnik" (Genetically modified crops) claiming to give a scientifically well balanced information about GMO's in agriculture. In this paper we analyse this approach resulting in a critical review regarding the intention of the booklet. We conclude that the evaluation of GMO's in agriculture primarily from a crop breeding perspective is lacking crucial positions in terms of ecology, socio-economy, agronomy, nutritional sciences and finally ethics in life science.

Climate change in urban areas. Part 2, Measures

Abstract: Part 2 presents measures at the city scale, which are distinguished into object- and area-related means. The former ones include emission reduction, energy gaining and saving, as well as the climate-improving impact of rooftop and facade greening. Area-related means refer to the reduction of radiation temperature through shading and transpiration as well as impact of urban green areas of different size on the urban climate. Furthermore the opportunities to use subsurface urban heat island as an energy-reservoir for cooling or heating are discussed.

Response to the criticism by Taube et al. in ESE 23:1, 2011, on the booklet "Green Genetic Engineering" published by the German Research Foundation (DFG)

Abstract: The authors of the DFG booklet "Green Genetic Engineering" respond to the criticism by Taube et al. in Environmental Sciences Europe 2011, 23:1. The broad criticism on current cropping systems in agriculture is replied to by the notice that the booklet focusses on the role of Green Genetic Engineering as a modern tool in plant breeding and on the potential uses of GMO cultivars. It is pointed out that the risks of GMO crops for the environment or human health which have been put forward in the criticism are not provable. The reproaches of wrong facts being contained in the booklet are particularly addressed and rebutted.

Climate change in urban areas, Part 1, Effects

Abstract: The objective of this article, which is being published in two parts, is to investigate the effects of global climate change on a conurbation (the Ruhr area) and to discuss local counter-measures.

A new approach to investigate the interactions between sediment transport and ecotoxicological processes during flood events

Abstract: Extreme hydrodynamic events such as flood events or dredging activities bear the risk of eroding sediments in rivers, reservoirs, harbour basins or estuaries. One of the key concerns associated with these erosion processes is the re-mobilisation of sediment-bound pollutants in highly contaminated sediments. To date, much research has been conducted to characterise flow and sediment processes associated with hydrological events such as floods. Furthermore, there is a large body of literature describing the interaction of contaminants associated with particulate matter to aquatic biota. However, there is little knowledge regarding interactions between hydro-sedimentological and ecotoxicological processes. Understanding of the ecotoxicological consequences and associated risks to aquatic wildlife associated with hydraulic events can provide critical information to regulatory bodies or managing authorities. Specifically, it will aid in assessing risks associated with current management practices and will aid in developing more sustainable future management practices for waterways or harbours. Therefore, a combined experimental methodology between hydraulic engineers and ecotoxicologists was developed to investigate the ecological and toxicological relevance of sediment re-suspension and transport during erosion. An overview of this methodology is given in the present paper.

Setup, efforts and practical experiences of a monitoring program for genetically modified plants - an Austrian case study for oilseed rape and maize

Abstract: Background, aim and scope: According to the Directive 2001/18/EC, genetically modified plants [GMPs] have to be monitored for unintended ecological impacts during their release. Detrimental effects on the biodiversity of agro-ecosystems represent a prime focus of such a monitoring. Although cropping of GMPs has already been permitted in the European Union, the establishment of appropriate monitoring networks lags behind. Here, we provide an overview on Biodiversity-Nature-Safety [BINATS], one of the first national monitoring programs specifically designed and implemented to accompany and survey GMP effects on the biodiversity of agricultural landscapes. Materials and methods: BINATS was implemented on 100 test areas (625 m × 625 m) which were selected based on a stratified random sampling design from all across the Austrian agricultural landscape with a focus on maize and oilseed rape cultivation. For each test area, the distribution of different habitat structures was mapped, and the species number of vascular plants, the species number and abundance of butterflies and grasshoppers, as well as the abundance of potential hybridisation partners of oilseed rape were recorded on ten randomly distributed sampling sites (circles, radius 20 m). Results and conclusions: Implementing BINATS resulted in a consistent database of the biodiversity and habitat configuration across parts of the Austrian agricultural landscapes. These data provide a baseline against which future biodiversity trends and their relationship with eventual GMP cropping can be evaluated. Moreover, they serve for assessing site-specific biodiversity-related risks of GMP cropping even in advance of their release. Finally, the first monitoring cycle (2007 and 2008) revealed insights into both the significance and the limits of such a monitoring program and allowed for a realistic calculation of the associated costs. Recommendations and perspectives: Regular reassessments of the BINATS network will provide valuable insights into the change of biodiversity in Austrian agricultural landscapes and their potential drivers. BINATS was specifically designed to collect such information at comparatively low costs. However, the BINATS approach is flexible enough to include additional indicators or monitoring objects to take account for future insights into their particular relevance in a GMP cropping context. The results obtained from the first BINATS cycle could not yet be correlated with GMP impacts since GMPs have not been commercially released in Austria so far. In this aspect, BINATS still needs to prove its suitability to relate biodiversity changes to GMP cropping. But it is

A case study of GM maize gene flow in South Africa

Abstract: South Africa has been growing first-generation commercial genetically modified (GM) maize since 1997. Despite a requirement for non-GM food, especially for export, there is no system for coexistence of GM and non-GM crop. Gene flow is a major contributor to commingling, and different distances of cross-pollination have been recorded for maize, using a variety of field-trial designs under different environmental conditions, with the furthest distance being 650 m. However, these trials have usually been small plots and not on the scale of commercial farming. There are also no published data regarding the extent of cross-pollination for maize in South Africa, even after a decade of commercialization of GM. Thus, the aim of this study, conducted from 2005 to 2007, was to determine the extent of GM maize cross-pollination under South African conditions in the context of commercial farming practice. Field trials were planted with a central plot of yellow GM maize (0.0576 ha) surrounded by white non-GM maize (13.76 ha), in two different geographic regions over two seasons with temporal and spatial isolations to surrounding commercial maize planting. Cross-pollination from GM to non-GM maize was determined phenotypically across 16 directional transects. Pollen counts during flowering were compared to weather data as well as percentage cross-pollination. The data were transformed logarithmically, and mean percentage cross-pollination was compared to high cross-pollination. Although there was a general congruency between wind data, pollen load and cross-pollination, it is evident that wind data and pollen load do not solely explain the directional extent of cross-pollination and that swirling winds may have contributed to this incongruence. Based on the logarithmic equations of cross-pollination over distance, 45 m is sufficient to minimize cross-pollination to between <1.0% and 0.1%, 145 m for <0.1% to 0.01% and 473 m for <0.01% to 0.001%. However, compared to this, a theoretical isolation distance of 135 m is required to ensure a minimum level of cross-pollination between <1.0% and 0.1%, 503 m for <0.1% to 0.01% and 1.8 km for <0.01% to 0.001% based on high values of cross-pollination. Based on the results of this study, the use of mean values of cross-pollination over distance may result in an underestimation of gene flow. Where stringent control of gene flow is required, for example, for non-GM seed production or for GM field trials under contained use, the high values of cross-pollination should be used to determine isolation distance. However, this may not be practical in terms of the isolation distance required. We therefore suggest that temporal and distance isolations be combined, taking into account the GM maize pollen sources within the radius of the most stringent isolation distance required.

Mapping atmospheric depositions of cadmium and lead in Germany based on EMEP deposition data and the European Moss Survey 2005

Abstract: Every five years since 1990, the European Heavy Metals in Mosses Survey provided data on atmospheric heavy metal bioaccumulations in mosses throughout Europe at a high spatial resolution. The moss data show the effectiveness of air quality control policies: for Germany the metal bioaccumulations decreased between 1990 and 2000, whilst they increased from 2000 to 2005. This investigation is intended to show how the moss data could be used to map atmospheric depositions of Cd and Pb, which later on might serve for the calculation of Critical Loads Exceedances. In addition, we compared how much heavy metal concentrations in mosses in Germany deviate from background data observed in Greenland. Mapping heavy metals with a high spatial resolution for the German territory was conducted according to the following methodology: EMEP deposition maps (50 km by 50 km spatial resolution) were intersected within a GIS with Kriging maps on Cd and Pb accumulations in mosses (EMEP (European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme) is a scientifically based and politically driven programme under the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution for international co-operation to solve transboundary air pollution problems). Subsequently, the statistical relations between the EMEP modelled depositions and the bioaccumulations in mosses were quantified by using regression analysis. The regression functions were used to transform the moss concentration maps into deposition maps. The resulting maps on Cd and Pb depositions have a spatial resolution of 5 km by 5 km and were added to the respective map on the residuals of the regression functions (Regression Kriging). Finally, the territory of Germany was extracted from the European maps on Cd and Pb depositions and the legends were adjusted accordingly in terms of n standard deviations from the German mean value. The concentrations of Al, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mo, Pb, Sb, Sn, and Zn in the mosses sampled in 1990, 1995, 2000 and 2005 in Germany were compared with background values derived from mosses sampled in north-eastern Greenland (Zackenberg Background Values). The differences between heavy metal concentrations in mosses in Germany and Greenland were calculated for the 16 federal states of Germany and mapped for Pb. The regression models corroborate that the Cd concentration in mosses is correlated with the EMEP modelled total Cd deposition across Europe (regression coefficient according to Pearson, r p = 0.67; regression coefficient according to Spearman, r s = 0.69). The coefficient of determination is r 2 = 0.44. The same is true for Pb with r p = 0.76 and r s = 0.77 and r 2 = 0.58. Based on the regression models and the respective residuals, maps on the total deposition of Cd and Pb were calculated for the year 2005. The German mean value of total Cd and Pb deposition was 0.342 g/ha/a (standard deviation 0.08 g/ha/a and 8.6 g/ha/a (standard deviation 2.1 g/ha/a) respectively. The maps depict the spatial patterns of the total Cd and Pb deposition in terms of n standard deviations from the respective German wide mean value. The spatial resolution of the maps is 5 km × 5 km and reflects the mesh size of the moss monitoring net. Even today, the bioaccumulation of several metals in Germany still exceeds the background values observed in Greenland. This is true especially for Cd, Cr, Cu, Mo, Pb, Sb, Sn and Zn. Comparing the results of this investigation with those from other methods it can be concluded that the mean values calculated for the total Cd and Pb deposition for Germany differ from such assessed by deposition measurements and models. The latter are used to calculate Critical Loads Exceedances, which complement the ecotoxicological endpoint 'accumulation'. The deposition measurements in Germany are mainly based on monitoring systems conducted by the federal states. When trying to use deposition measurements from the ICP Forests level II programme for the validation of the EMEP deposition modelling, problems arose due to a lack of methodical harmonization and the quality of the depositions measurements. That is why in this investigation the quality controlled and spatially high resolved moss data were used to empirically validate EMEP modelled deposition maps. In Germany, the moss measurement data provide a valuable tool at a high spatial resolution for the validation of modelling and mapping of atmospheric heavy metal deposition and should as such be used for this purpose. The comparison of the metal concentrations in mosses in Germany with the values found in Greenland indicate that atmospheric deposition of heavy metals in Germany is still considerably higher than the natural background deposition.

Scrutinizing the current practice of the environmental risk assessment of GM maize applications for cultivation in the EU

Abstract: The prevailing controversies on the potential environmental risks of genetically modified organisms [GMOs] still fuel ongoing discussions among European Union [EU] member states, risk assessors, applicants and scientists, even several years after the commercial introduction of GMOs. The disagreements mainly derive from the current risk assessment practice of GMOs and differences in the perceived environmental risks. Against this background, the aim of this study was to scrutinize the current practice of environmental risk assessment [ERA] of several GMO applications currently pending for authorisation in the EU. We analysed the data presented for three assessment categories of the ERA of genetically modified [GM] maize applications for cultivation in the European Union: the agronomic evaluations and the assessments of the effects of GM maize on target organisms and of its potential adverse effects on non-target organisms. Major shortcomings causing considerable uncertainties related to the risk assessment were identified in all three categories. In addition, two principles of Directive 2001/18/EC are largely not fulfilled - the consideration of the receiving environment and the indirect effects, as mediated, e.g. by the application of the complementary herbicide in the case of herbicide-tolerant GM maize. We conclude that the current practice of ERA does not comprehensively fulfil the scientific and legal requirements of Directive 2001/18/EC, and we propose improvements and needs for further guidance and development of standards. The recommendations address likewise applicants, risk assessors as well as decision makers.

Mapping background values of atmospheric nitrogen total depositions in Germany based on EMEP deposition modelling and the European Moss Survey 2005

Abstract: In order to map exceedances of critical atmospheric deposition loads for nitrogen (N) surface data on the atmospheric deposition of N compounds to terrestrial ecosystems are needed. Across Europe such information is provided by the international European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) in a resolution of 50 km by 50 km, relying on both emission data and measurement data on atmospheric depositions. The objective of the article at hand is on the improvement of the spatial resolution of the EMEP maps by combining them with data on the N concentration in mosses provided by the International Cooperative Programme on Effects of Air Pollution on Natural Vegetation and Crops (ICP Vegetation) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LTRAP) Convention. The map on atmospheric depositions of total N as modelled by EMEP was intersected with geostatistical surface estimations on the N concentration in mosses at a resolution of 5 km by 5 km. The medians of the N estimations in mosses were then calculated for each 50 km by 50 km grid cell. Both medians of moss estimations and corresponding modelled deposition values were ln-transformed and their relationship investigated and modelled by linear regression analysis. The regression equations were applied on the moss kriging estimates of the N concentration in mosses. The respective residuals were projected onto the centres of the EMEP grid cells and were mapped using variogram analysis and kriging procedures. Finally, the residual and the regression map were summed up to the map of total N deposition in terrestrial ecosystems throughout Europe. The regression analysis of the estimated N concentrations in mosses and the modelled EMEP depositions resulted in clear linear regression patterns with coefficients of determination of r 2 = 0.62 and Pearson correlations of r p = 0.79 and Spearman correlations of r s = 0.70, respectively. Regarding the German territory a nationwide mean of 18.1 kg/ha/a (standard deviation: 3.49 kg/ha/a) could be derived from the resulting map on total N deposition in a resolution of 5 km by 5 km. Recent updates of the modelled atmospheric deposition of N provided a similar estimate for Germany. The linking of modelled EMEP data on the atmospheric depositions of total N and the accumulation of N in mosses allows to map the deposition of total N in a high resolution of 5 km by 5 km using empirical moss data. The mapping relies on the strong statistical relationship between both processes that are physically and chemically related to each other. The mapping approach thereby relies on available data that are both based on European wide harmonized methodologies. From an ecotoxicological point of view the linking of data on N depositions and those on N bioaccumulation can be considered a substantial progress.

Reply to "Down-to-Earth" is Imperative! On the Problems of Landscape-Ecological Regionalisation by Means of Multivariate Statistical Methods Friedrich Weller (Ravensburg, Germany) in DIE ERDE 2009, 140:113-125

Abstract: The reply addresses the severe criticism of F. Weller in DIE ERDE 2009, 140: 113-125 dealing with the ecological land classification which was first published in Umweltwissenschaften und Schadstoff-Forschung 12 (4), S. 237-243and later on detailed in the Handbuch der Umweltwissenschaften, 17. Erg. Lfg. 2006. Mainly, the critique concentrates on the following three issues: 1. The regionalisation dissects uniform landscapes each exhibiting a typical ecological pattern and combines the separated parts with parts of other landscapes to form ecological heterogeneous land classes. 2. The calculation of average values of ecological characters of these heterogeneous land classes is useless and absurd. 3. The nomenclature of the statistically derived land classes violates the correct use of traditional landscape names. The reply shows that, on the one hand, Weller's criticism is due to the impression that he does not understand the statistical method used to calculate the ecological land classification. On the other hand the reply seizes that Weller's idea of land classification does not meet the epistemological principles of experimental sciences such as methodical transparency as well as objectivity and reproducibility of results.

Marine pollution: Let us not forget beach sand

Abstract: Assessing the chemical or bacterial contamination in marine waters and sediments is a very common approach to evaluate marine pollution and associated risks. However, toxicity and organic pollution of beach sands have not yet been considered, except in adjacent waters. In the present study, the toxicity and the chemical contamination of natural beach sands collected 20 m from the shoreline at two sites located on the Mediterranean Sea (Marseille and La Marana, Corsica) were studied. Up to 16.93% (net percentage) abnormal or dead larvae was observed in elutriates prepared from the urban beach sand sample (Marseille); no significant toxicity was observed in the sample collected from the reference beach in La Marana. Results of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analyses revealed that no microplastics were present in either of the samples. Several polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [PAHs] in both samples and a larger number of individual PAHs in the urban sample than in the sample collected from the reference beach were detected. In addition, the antioxidant dioctyldiphenylamine was detected in both beach sand samples, whereby a higher concentration was found in La Marana than in Marseille. Calculated PAH concentrations in elutriates were generally higher than measured ones. The results of this preliminary study provide evidence of toxicity and the presence of organic trace contaminants in beach sands from France. According to our results, monitoring using a combination of biotests and chemical analyses is recommended, especially of sediments from beaches abandoned to urban and industrial areas.

Vertical migration of phytoplankton in coastal waters with different UVR transparency

Abstract: The vertical migration of phytoplankton was investigated in natural waters using in situ fluorescence profiling, chlorophyll a concentrations and life counts at two study sites differing in coloured dissolved organic matter (cDOM) concentrations. The data from the corresponding water depths (50-cm intervals down to 10 m) and times (hourly, before dawn to sunset, several days) were related to the highly resolved (2 nm) underwater ultraviolet radiation (UVR)/photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) transparency (290 to 700 nm). Chlorophyll a maxima of mainly motile dinoflagellates were observed in situ at all days and at both study sites (open marine, brackish waters), independent on prevailing weather conditions or cDOM concentrations. Phytoplankton migration was triggered solely by irradiance in the 400- to 700-nm wavelength range (PAR) at the particular water depth, irrespective of PAR/UVR ratios and surface UVR (290 to 400 nm), after an illumination period of about 40 min. Interestingly, the PAR tolerance levels of the phytoplankton, which have been lower in cDOM-rich waters, matched their light acclimation values determined by parallel PAM measurements. The response of the phytoplankton to PAR is not a sufficient protection strategy versus increasing UVR levels, which might have wide ecological implications beyond the level of primary producers to impact important ecosystem functions such as the delicate trophic interactions.

Discussion of risks of platinum resources based on a function orientated criticality assessment - shown by cytostatic drugs and automotive catalytic converters

Abstract: The purpose of the study is the enhancement of criticality assessments for resources in order to address function specific factors like dissipation, recycling, bio-activity and toxicity. The developed methodology is applied to platinum-containing cytostatic drugs and automotive catalytic converters. The study is methodically based on an analysis of resource specific factors like exploration rates, reserves-to-production ratio and regional distribution of exploration areas as well as on the investigation of product/functional depending factors like recycling rates, dissipation rates, bio-diversity and toxicity. Taking into account that economic and ecological risks may occur at any stage of the supply, consumption and dissipation processes, the whole life cycles of the two analyzed products (cytostatic drugs and automotive catalytic converters) are considered. As an approach to reduce potential economic and ecological risks the study is especially focused on recycling strategies. In order to get a better understanding of platinum as an essential resource for the development of our society the history and the cultural impact of the term "resource" are introduced. The availability of platinum is crucial for several products of our modern society. Areas of application are e.g. jewellery, automotive catalytic converters, investments (coins, bars), computers, mobile devices, fertilizers and cytostatic drugs. Economic risks are caused by limited sources and dynamic demand of new application areas like fuel cells and drugs. Platinum-containing drugs are used for the treatment of several kinds of cancer such as testicular, breast, colon and prostate. Currently the pharmaceutical industry requires 6,9 tons per year (3 percent of the total demand of platinum). Due to the improvement of medical standards and the ageing society, especially in developing countries, the demand of platinum-containing drugs will rise significantly. The dissipation of toxic soluble salts and the lack of advanced waste-water treatment and recycling systems is a problem of the usage of platinum-containing drugs. Compared with cytostatic drugs (14.6 kg/a for Germany) the dissipation of platinum particles of mobile catalytic converters is much higher (5-20 tons/a only in North America, Europe and Japan; 184,2 kg/a in Germany). On the other hand the emission of platinum nano-particles of automotive catalytic converters seems less critical. Furthermore advanced recycling technologies are already available for them. The evaluation of resources has to consider resource specific and functional depending factors. In order to reduce economic and ecological risks of the dissipation of platinum salts in cytostatic drugs three principle options can be identified: the development of ecologically compatible and cost-effective substitutes, efficient recycling systems and future-oriented sanitary-systems as well as waste-water treatment facilities, which are able to separate platinum salts. Concerning the dissipation of platinum particles of mobile converters relevant research questions are the identification of adequate substitutes as well as the extension of recycling capacities. The study demonstrates a research gap concerning substitutes for automotive catalytic converters as well as for platinum-containing cytostatic drugs. The development and implementation of recycling concepts, technologies and capacities to reuse platinum as a secondary resource is an essential issue. As a consequence the economic and ecological risks can be reduced by increasing the resource efficiency. Special research has to be done concerning the development of future-oriented sanitary-systems and waste-water treatment facilities in order to separate platinum in waste water. Furthermore, if the future demand of new products like fuel cells is considered, a resource conflict concerning the potential functional applications will be evident. In order to address these challenges the criticality assessment has to be enhanced by ethic and social factors.

Cultivation of GMO in Germany: support of monitoring and coexistence issues by WebGIS technology

Abstract: In Germany, apart from the Amflora potato licensed for cultivation since March 2010, Bt-maize MON810 is the only genetically modified organisms (GMO) licensed for commercial cultivation (about 3,000 ha in 2008). Concerns have been raised about potential adverse environmental impacts of the GMO and about potential implications on the coexistence between conventional and genetically modified production. These issues should be considered on a regional base. The objective of this article is to describe how GMO monitoring that is required after risk assessment and GMO release can be complemented by a Web-based geoinformation system (WebGIS). Secondly, it is also described how WebGIS techniques might support coexistence issues with regard to Bt-maize cultivation and conservation areas. Accordingly, on the one hand, the WebGIS should enable access to relevant geodata describing the receiving environment, including information on cultivation patterns and conservation areas containing protected species and habitats. On the other hand, metadata on already established environmental monitoring networks should be provided as well as measurement data of the intended GMO monitoring. Based on this information and based on the functionality provided by the WebGIS, the application helps in detecting possible environmental GMO impacts and in avoiding or identifying coexistence problems. The WebGIS applies Web mapping techniques to generate maps via internet requests and offers additional functionality for analysis, processing and publication of selected geodata. It is based on open source software solely. The developments rely on a combination of the University of Minnesota (UMN ) MapServer with the Apache HTTP server, the open source database management systems MySQL and PostgreSQL and the graphical user interface provided by Mapbender. Important information on the number and the location of Bt-maize fields were derived from the GMO location register of BVL. The "WebGIS GMO Monitoring" provides different tools allowing for the application of basic GIS techniques as, for instance, automatic or interactive zooming, distance measurements or querying attribute information from selected GIS layers. More sophisticated GIS tools were implemented additionally, e.g. a buffer function which enables generating buffers around selected geo-objects like Bt-maize fields. Finally, a function for intersection of different maps was developed. The WebGIS comprises information on the location of all Bt-maize fields in Germany according to the official GMO location register of the Federal Office of Consumer Protection and Food Safety between 2005 and 2008. It facilitates, amongst others, access to geodata of GMO fields and their surroundings and can relate them with additional environmental data on climate, soil, and agricultural patterns. Furthermore, spatial data on the location of flora-fauna-habitats and environmental monitoring sites in the federal state of Brandenburg were integrated. The WebGIS GMO monitoring was implemented according to the concept for an "Information System for Monitoring GMO" (ISMO) which was designed on behalf of the German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation. ISMO includes hypotheses-based ecological effects of GMO cultivation and suggests checkpoints for GMO monitoring to test whether impacts may be observed in the receiving environment. In contrast to the public GMO register, the WebGIS GMO monitoring enables mapping of GMO fields and provides relevant geodata describing environmental and agricultural conditions in their neighbourhood of the cultivation sites as well as information derived from monitoring sites. On this basis, spatial analyses should be enabled and supported, respectively. Further, the WebGIS GMO monitoring supplements PortalU which, in Germany, is the technical realisation of the Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Europe directive (Directive 2007/2/EC) released by the EU in 2007. The article should have shown how to support and complement GMO monitoring with the help of the WebGIS application. It facilitates co-operation and data access across spatial scales for different users since it is based on internet technologies. The WebGIS improves storage, analysis, management and presentation of spatial data. Apart from the improved flow of information, it supports future long-term GMO monitoring and modelling of the dispersal of transgenic pollen, for instance. Additional information (e.g. data on wind conditions or soil observation sites) provided by the WebGIS will be helpful to determine representative monitoring sites for detecting potential GMO impacts by means of monitoring or modelling. Thus, the WebGIS can also serve as part of an early warning system. In the near future, the integration of locations of all Bt-maize fields in Germany into the WebGIS as a continuous task should be automatised. Additionally, a methodology should be developed to detect maize fields by means of remote sensing data to manage coexistence problems on the basis of actual field patterns.

A modeling assessment of geneflow in smallholder agriculture in West Africa

Abstract: Small-scale agriculture is an important issue for food security in Africa. In the context of Genetically Modified Organisms, approaches to quantify geneflow in small-scale systems are widely unexplored. We aimed at bridging this gap by contributing to the scientific discussion on the uncertainties of the cultivation of genetically modified (GM) crops in the region. The safety issue is: Would it be possible to withdraw a variety in case that unexpected and undesirable effects occur? e.g. the resistance of pests which make the variety no more useful. We used a GIS approach to determine the location of maize cultivation sites, field geometries and applied a model for the calculation of geneflow scenarios. The data revealed that the given cropping density provides optimal conditions for transgene spread, potentially limiting the possibility for coexistence between GM and non-GM fields. On average, we found about 60 fields within a nearest distance of 100 m, and cropping density of 56 fields per square kilometer. The resulting cross-pollination rate from the single GM field into the neighbouring conventional fields was estimated to be about 0.12%. GM varieties if introduced could remain in cultivation even if their admission has expired or has been retracted. This would be undesirable and could cause long-term, undesirable stacked combination of transgenes which cannot be tested with respect to eventual combinatory effects. These developments pose major challenges for fielder livelihoods, and conservation of maize genetic resources with potentially negative consequences for the African food export sector.

Second REP-LECOTOX Workshop "Trends in Ecological Risk Assessment", University of Novi Sad, Serbia, 21-23 September 2009

Abstract: a. To present comprehensive information about the current state, challenges and trends in the field of both chemical and ecological risk assessment (ERA), with special reference to application into environmental management practice; b. To provide local and regional professionals, decision makers and different stakeholders (e.g. industry, regulatory agencies, non-governmental organisations (NGOs)...) with the comprehensive overview of the valid European Union (EU) regulations and future trends regarding chemical and ecological risk assessment (with special reference to Regulation on Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH)-EC No. 1907/2006 and Water Framework Directive (WFD)); c. To serve as a forum for networking, knowledge and information exchange and dissemination, providing a substantial contribution to Serbian/Western Balkan Countries societies in the processes of transposition of and harmonisation with the EU environmental legislation, policy and practice.

Legal implications of the step-by-step principle

Abstract: Purpose: The ‘step-by step’ principle was introduced into the European Union legislation on genetically modified organisms as a means to cope with uncertainty about environmental risks from the release of genetically modified organisms into the environment. The approval process is orientated along the stepwise reduction of containment which reflects a precautionary approach towards the risks of genetically modified organism release. Thus, the gradual reduction of containment should keep pace with the gradual generation of risk-related knowledge. This paper strives to clarify the meaning, legal status and practical importance of the principle. It also looks at whether non-European Union countries have adopted the principle as well, and how they practice it. Methods: The article is based on research of the relevant legal texts, court cases and legal literature. In addition, a number of dossiers of applications for the European Union authorisation of release and placing on the market of genetically modified seed were analysed. Results and conclusions: Although ‘step-by-step’ is not a precise legal rule it does have legal meaning as a principle guiding the risk assessment and management of genetically modified organism introduction into the environment. Assuming a process of gradual reduction of containment and scaling up of release ranging from closed systems via experimental release to cultivation the ‘step-by-step principle’ requires that the knowledge on environmental risks of genetically modified organisms should be generated on stages previous to the ones where the risk can result in damage. The analysis of the legislation of China, the United States of America and Brazil showed a differentiated approach towards the step-by-step principle.

The Second Young Environmental Scientist (YES) meeting 2011 at RWTH Aachen University - environmental challenges in a changing world

Abstract: This article reports on the second Young Environmental Scientists Meeting that was hosted from 28 February to 2 March 2011 by the Institute for Environmental Research at RWTH Aachen University, Germany. This extraordinary meeting was again initiated and organized by the Student Advisory Council under the umbrella of Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry Europe. A movie about the meeting and the abstracts of poster and platform presentations are freely available as supplemental material of this article.

Mapping carbon sequestration in forests at the regional scale - a climate biomonitoring approach by example of Germany

Abstract: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change recognizes carbon (C) fixation in forests as an important contribution for the reduction of atmospheric pollution in terms of greenhouse gases. Spatial differentiation of C sequestration in forests either at the national or at the regional scale is therefore needed for forest planning purposes. Hence, within the framework of the Forest Focus regulation, the aim of this investigation was to statistically analyse factors influencing the C fixation and to use the corresponding associations in terms of a predictive mapping approach at the regional scale by example of the German federal state North Rhine-Westphalia. The results of the methodical scheme outlined in this article should be compared with an already-published approach applied to the same data which were used in the investigation at hand. Site-specific data on C sequestration in humus, forest trees/dead wood and soil from two forest monitoring networks were intersected with available surface information on topography, soil, climate and forestal growing areas and districts. Next, the association between the C sequestration and the influence factors were examined and modelled by linear regression analyses. The resulting regression equations were applied on the surface data to predicatively map the C sequestration for the entire study area. The computations yielded an estimation of 146.7 mio t C sequestered in the forests of North Rhine-Westphalia corresponding to 168.6 t/ha. The calculated values correspond well to according specifications given by the literature. Furthermore, the results are almost identical to those of another pilot study where a different statistical methodology was applied on the same database. Nevertheless, the underlying regression models contribute only a low degree of explanation to the overall variance of the C fixation. This might mainly be due to data quality aspects and missing influence factors in the analyses. In another study, an alternative approach was introduced to map the spatial differentiation of C sequestration in North Rhine-Westphalia based on the combination of geostatistics, decision tree analyses and GIS techniques. As a result, the overall mean of C sequestration amounted for 177 t C/ha which is 8.4 t C/ha higher than what was calculated in the study at hand and 14 t C/ha below the roughly guessed German-wide mean of 191 t C/ha. The surface estimations of C pools in living forest trees/dead wood, the humus layer and the mineral soil enable to map the fixation of the greenhouse gas CO2 in forests at the regional scale. The estimations that were derived in this study are in good accordance with estimations based on techniques which, in contrast, did neither allow for spatial differentiation nor for mapping. The presented approach should be validated by application of other statistical techniques and by use of German wide inventory data. Furthermore, C sequestration should be modelled according to different climate change scenarios by combining statistical methods and dynamic modelling.