Showing papers in "Journal of Applied Sport Psychology in 2009"
TL;DR: The authors compared the effectiveness of three different foci (internal, proximal external, and distal external) in a sample of skilled performers in a naturalistic environment, and examined the use of attentional foci under conditions of anxiety.
Abstract: Wulf and colleagues (e.g., Wulf, Lauterbach, & Toole, 1999) have demonstrated that the adoption of an external focus of attention is preferable for the learning of complex motor tasks. The present investigation extends the attention focus literature in two ways: (a) it compared the effectiveness of three different foci (internal, proximal external, and distal external) in a sample of skilled performers in a naturalistic environment, and (b) it examined the use of attentional foci under conditions of anxiety. Thirty-three skilled male golfers were assigned to one of three attentional focus groups and completed five blocks of ten pitch shots, three in neutral conditions and two in anxiety conditions. Results from two separate mixed model analyses of variance (ANOVAs) indicated that regardless of anxiety condition, those assigned to a distal external focus of attention performed most accurately (p < 0.05), whereas assignment to an internal focus of attention was associated with the least accurate performance...
305 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explored the construct validity of a Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory and its relationship with team cohesion and performance level and found that the leadership behaviors of fostering acceptance of group goals and promoting team work, high performance expectations, and individual consideration significantly predicted task cohesion.
Abstract: The present study explored the construct validity of a Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory and its relationship with team cohesion and performance level. Three hundred and nine club standard ultimate Frisbee players in the United Kingdom (mean age = 24.30 years, SD = 3.90) completed an adapted version of Hardy, Arthur, Jones, Shariff, Munnoch, Isaacs, and Allsopp et al.'s (in press) Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory and the Group Environment Questionnaire (Carron, Widmeyer, & Brawley, 1985). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed evidence for the factorial and discriminant validity of the leadership inventory. Furthermore, results demonstrated that the leadership behaviors of fostering acceptance of group goals and promoting team work, high performance expectations, and individual consideration significantly predicted task cohesion; and fostering acceptance of group goals and promoting teamwork significantly predicted social cohesion. Performance level moderated these re...
245 citations
TL;DR: This article found that immersion in elite sport culture shaped these women's identities around performance values of single-minded dedication to sport and prioritization of winning above all other areas of life, and when the performance narrative ceased to fit their changing lives, both women, having no alternative narrative to guide their personal life stories, experienced narrative wreckage and considerable personal trauma.
Abstract: Despite its potential to illuminate psychological processes within socio-cultural contexts, examples of narrative research are rare in sport psychology. In this study, we employed an analysis of narrative to explore two women's stories of living in, and withdrawing from, professional tournament golf gathered through life history interviews conducted over 6 years. Our findings suggest that immersion in elite sport culture shaped these women's identities around performance values of single-minded dedication to sport and prioritization of winning above all other areas of life. When the performance narrative ceased to “fit” their changing lives, both women, having no alternative narrative to guide their personal life stories, experienced narrative wreckage and considerable personal trauma. They required asylum—a place of refuge where performance values were no longer paramount—to story their lives around a relational narrative that reinstated a coherent identity while providing meaning and worth to life after...
212 citations
TL;DR: Support for the validity of the PACES as a valid measure of enjoyment of physical activity in children is suggested; nevertheless, further research examining the invariance of the factor structure across sex is warranted.
Abstract: This study sought to determine the reliability and validity of the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) in elementary school children. The sample consisted of 564 3rd grade students (M age = 8.72 ±.54; 268 male, 296 female) surveyed at the beginning of the fall semester. Results indicated that the PACES displayed good internal consistency and item-total correlations. Confirmatory factor analyses supported a unidimensional factor structure. Scores on the PACES were significantly correlated with task goal orientation (r = .65, p < .01), athletic competence (r = .23, p < .01), physical appearance (r = .20, p < .01), and self-reported physical activity (r = .16, p < .01). However, results of invariance analysis suggested the factor structure is variant across sex. The present findings suggest support for the validity of the PACES as a valid measure of enjoyment of physical activity in children; nevertheless, further research examining the invariance of the factor structure across sex is warranted.
193 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present the first in a series of studies exploring coaches' experiences of stress within the unique culture of world class sport and highlight the importance of psychological skills training for coaches to help them cope with the diverse demands of world-class coaching.
Abstract: This paper presents the first in a series of studies exploring coaches’ experiences of stress within the unique culture of world class sport. The purpose of this study was to gain an in-depth account of the stressors encountered by elite coaches in the United Kingdom. Six male and six female coaches with international experience were interviewed. Transcribed interviews were inductively content analyzed by three independent researchers. Ten higher-order themes emerged, demonstrating that coaches experienced a wide range of stressors (e.g., conflict, pressure and expectation, athlete concerns, competition preparation, isolation). Conflict within the organization emerged as a key theme, indicating that communication skills might be important in helping coaches function effectively as part of a wider organizational team. Findings also highlight the importance of psychological skills training for coaches to help them cope with the diverse demands of world class coaching.
163 citations
TL;DR: This article evaluated the effectiveness of two different psychological skills training (PST) packages in enhancing mental toughness among three youth-aged (under 15 years old) Australian football teams and reported more positive changes in subjective ratings of mental toughness, resilience, and flow than the control group.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of two different psychological skills training (PST) packages in enhancing mental toughness among three youth-aged (under 15 years old) Australian football teams. We compared a program targeting the keys to mental toughness identified previously (Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2008) with a more traditional PST program targeting self-regulation, arousal regulation, mental rehearsal, attentional control, self-efficacy, and ideal performance state as well as a control group. Overall, both intervention groups reported more positive changes in subjective ratings of mental toughness, resilience, and flow than the control group. Similar ratings for mental toughness were reported by the parents and coaches. Both PST packages appeared to be equally effective in enhancing mental toughness.
157 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a self-confrontation interview with seven expert volleyball players was conducted to test the Recognition-Primed Decision model with regard to volleyball decision-making under time pressure conditions.
Abstract: This article reports on decision-making under time pressure conditions. It aims at testing the Recognition-Primed Decision model with regard to volleyball. Seven male expert players participated in this study. A match was videotaped; each player was interviewed in a self-confrontation interview. Inductive and deductive analysis revealed three main results. The first showed that their decision-making was based on a recognition process of the situation typicality. The second emphasized that this process had four by-products: (a) expectations, (b) relevant cues, (c) plausible goals, and (d) typical action. The players did not equally report these by-products. The third main result showed that the decisions were largely prearranged. They consisted of an association between a typical situation and a typical action, the typical action was then adapted to the current situation. The results are discussed in relation to the Recognition-Primed Decision model and to research that has considered decision-making.
126 citations
TL;DR: This paper used a sample of 314 British athletes (170 male, 144 female) to examine whether social-contextual and personal motivation variables proposed by self-determination theory can predict reported levels of sportspersonship and antisocial moral attitudes in sport.
Abstract: This study used a sample of 314 British athletes (170 male, 144 female) to examine whether social-contextual and personal motivation variables proposed by self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2002) can predict reported levels of sportspersonship and antisocial moral attitudes in sport. Structural equation modeling analysis showed that perceptions of coach autonomy support were positive predictors of athletes’ satisfaction of their psychological needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy. In turn, the three needs were positive predictors of autonomous motivation. Autonomous motivation positively predicted sportspersonship and negatively predicted antisocial moral attitudes in sport. The opposite pattern of results was observed between controlled motivation and the sportspersonship and antisocial moral attitudes variables. The findings emphasize the importance of autonomy supportive environments, psychological need satisfaction, and autonomous motivation for fostering sportspersonship in sport.
110 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined stressors and coping strategies among early (12-14 years) and middle adolescents (15-18 years) in soccer players and found that middle adolescents reported more stressors than early adolescents and that these two groups experienced both common and different stressors.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine stressors and coping strategies among early (12–14 years) and middle adolescents (15–18 years). Forty male academy soccer players, aged between 12–18 years (M age = 14.22 years), participated in semi-structured interviews, which were inductively and deductively content analyzed. Findings revealed that middle adolescents reported more stressors than early adolescents and that these two groups experienced both common and different stressors. Early adolescents identified making errors, opponents, team performance, and family as salient stressors. Making errors, team performance, coaches, selection, contracts, social evaluation, and playing at a higher level were more prominent among middle adolescents. Middle adolescents reported a greater number and repertoire of coping strategies than early adolescents, and used more problem- and emotion-focused strategies, but fewer avoidance strategies than early adolescents. Based on these findings, it is recommended that applied...
108 citations
TL;DR: This paper investigated the role of personal and social factors in explaining differences in observed prosocial and antisocial behaviors in soccer and found that the effects of sex on antisocial behavior were substantially reduced when behavior scores were adjusted for empathy, perceived performance climate, or soccer experience.
Abstract: This study investigated sex differences in observed prosocial and antisocial behaviors in soccer and the role of personal and social factors in explaining these differences. Male (n = 26) and female (n = 20) soccer teams, consisting of players (N = 464) whose age ranged from 15–47 years, participated in the study. For each team, a 90-min soccer game was videotaped, and questionnaires were administered to players measuring empathy, motivational climate, soccer experience, and demographics. Two observers recorded prosocial and antisocial behaviors for each team. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that males and females did not differ in prosocial behaviors, but males engaged in more antisocial acts than females. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) showed that the effects of sex on antisocial behavior were substantially reduced when behavior scores were adjusted for empathy, perceived performance climate, or soccer experience. Our findings underscore the importance of these variables in explaining sex differ...
97 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the empathic accuracy of sixty coach-athlete dyads, its antecedents (meta-perceptions of relationship) and consequences (perceived of satisfaction) using an adaptation of Ickes's unstructured dyadic interaction paradigm.
Abstract: This study investigated the empathic accuracy of sixty coach-athlete dyads, its antecedents (meta-perceptions of relationship) and consequences (perceptions of satisfaction) An adaptation of Ickes's (2001) unstructured dyadic interaction paradigm was used to assess empathic accuracy whereby coach-athlete dyads were filmed during training A selection of video clips containing the dyads' interactions during a typical training session were shown to them The dyad members were asked to report their recollected thoughts and/or feelings while making inferences about what their partners' thought and felt at specific points of interaction Empathic accuracy was estimated by comparing the dyads' self-reports and inferences The results of a structural equation model analysis indicated an association between members' meta-perceptions or judgments that their partner is positive about the athletic relationship and increased empathic accuracy Increased empathic accuracy was in turn associated with higher levels of
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the effect of a cooperative physical education program on students' social skills and attitudes toward group work and found that the experimental classes had better social skills than the control classes.
Abstract: The present study examined the effect of a cooperative physical education program on students’ social skills and attitudes toward group work. Four sixth grade classes were assigned either in an experimental (n = 57) or in a control group (n = 57). The experimental classes received a cooperative learning program. Students completed self- and peer forms of the Multisource Assessment of Children's Social Competence (Junttila, Voeten, Kaukiainen, & Vauras, 2006) and the Feelings Toward Group Work scales (Cantwell & Andrews, 2002) before and after the program. Results showed gains of the experimental classes on social skills and on preferences for group work.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compare manual and computer assisted qualitative data analysis techniques and highlight the advantages, disadvantages, and commonly held assumptions of the use of CAQDAS in sport psychology research.
Abstract: Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) was developed for the purpose of creating efficient modes of qualitative data analysis (Fielding & Lee, 1998). Despite these developments, many social scientists continue to advocate manual data analysis techniques (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995). Given the rapid development of computerized methods of data analysis amid the continued call for the use of naturalistic inquiry in sport psychology research, the aim of this research note was to compare manual and computerized data analysis techniques. Results highlight the advantages, disadvantages, and commonly held assumptions of the use of CAQDAS.
TL;DR: In this paper, music was used in a "dual-task" paradigm to facilitate performance under pressure, and participants improved performance in the B2 phase, and explained that choking resulted from an increase in public self-awareness (S-A).
Abstract: “Choking” is defined as a critical deterioration in the execution of habitual processes as a result of an elevation in anxiety levels under perceived pressure, leading to substandard performance. In the current study, music was used in a “dual-task” paradigm to facilitate performance under pressure. Three “choking-susceptible” experienced female basketball players were purposively sampled from 41 screened players. Participants completed 240 basketball free throws in a single-case A1-B1-A2-B2 design (A phases = “low-pressure” and B phases = “high-pressure”), with the music intervention occurring during the B2 phase. Following completion of the phases, an interview was conducted to examine perceptions of choking and cognitions associated with the effects of the music lyrics. Participants improved performance in the B2 phase, and explained that choking resulted from an increase in public self-awareness (S-A). The music intervention decreased S-A, and enabled participants to minimize explicit monitoring of ex...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the relationship between perceived support and performance, and found that high levels of esteem support were associated with appraising a competition as less of a threat.
Abstract: Using a high-performance sample of 118 golfers, we examined the relationship between perceived support and performance. Observed variable path analysis revealed that the beneficial effects of perceived support were primarily attributable to esteem support. High levels of esteem support were associated with appraising a competition as less of a threat. Esteem support was also positively associated with situational control, which was positively associated with challenge appraisals and negatively associated with threat appraisals. Challenge appraisals were associated with better performance and threat appraisals with poorer performance. These results highlight possible mechanisms underlying the relationship between esteem support and performance.
TL;DR: This paper examined the birthplace and relative age effects in National Football League (NFL) players and found that players born in cities with populations of less than 500,000 were significantly overrepresented in the NFL, whereas players were significantly underrepresented.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the birthplace and relative age effects in National Football League (NFL) players. The place and date of birth of NFL players in the United States were analyzed with Monte Carlo simulations to determine if either factor was predictive of the probability of reaching the elite level in this sport. Consistent with previous findings on professional North American athletes in baseball, ice hockey, basketball, and golf, players born in cities with populations of less than 500,000 were significantly over-represented in the NFL, whereas players born in cities with populations over 500,000 were significantly under-represented. Unlike many other sports, no relative age effects were found for the NFL. Small cities, in particular, appeared to possess characteristics that facilitate the development and/or emergence of athletic talent in American football. Possible psychosocial factors mediating the birthplace effect are discussed as are implications for the development of sport...
TL;DR: In this article, the importance of temporal structure or rhythm, as one type of movement retrieval cue or prime, for optimum movement execution and emphasizes its potential for enhancing human performance is considered.
Abstract: This paper considers the importance of temporal structure or rhythm, as one type of movement retrieval cue or prime, for optimum movement execution and emphasizes its potential for enhancing human performance. To present this case, we consider evidence from the motor control literature that discusses the importance of temporal structure and rhythm and how these movement constraints are organized in the human body. We consider how such constraints have been researched to date, and the central role they might play in developing, maintaining, and prompting optimal movement patterns. On the basis of the literature reviewed, we suggest that temporally structured or rhythmical interventions can play a critical role in facilitating the execution of movement patterns in high-pressure performance environments. Finally, we offer a series of guidelines for the effective employment of rhythm-based approaches in applied settings.
TL;DR: The authors used semi-structured interviews with 14 male expert cricket batsmen, coaches, and administrators to generate a conceptual model of expertise in this sport and found that a favorable socio-developmental environment (support, vast investment in creative and challenging play, sibling rivalry) provides the essential foundation for the development of positive psychological attributes (mental toughness, self-belief and confidence, ability to cope with adversity, adoption of individualized routines/rituals), technical skill mastery (optimal balance, speed of downswing, versatility of shot execution) and superior visual-percept
Abstract: Data from semi-structured interviews with 14 male expert cricket batsmen, coaches, and administrators were used to generate a conceptual model of expertise in this sport. In the model, a favorable socio-developmental environment (support, vast investment in creative and challenging play, sibling rivalry) provides the essential foundation for the development of positive psychological attributes (mental toughness, self-belief and confidence, ability to cope with adversity, adoption of individualized routines/rituals), technical skill mastery (optimal balance, speed of downswing, versatility of shot execution) and superior visual-perceptual skill. Intrinsic motivators (fun, enjoyment, challenge and achievement, desire to be the best, “love of the game”, camaraderie) are regarded as essential to continuation and progression along developmental pathways. Facets of contemporary society and its constraints on free play emerged as one of the major limitations to the future development of expertise. The model has immediate implications for coaching practice, developmental policy, and future research approaches to identifying and nurturing sports talent.
TL;DR: This paper explored women track and field athletes' meanings of muscularity and found that women often struggle with attaining the muscular body needed to compete successfully, while at the same time negotiating expectations to conform to a lean and toned ideal.
Abstract: Women athletes often struggle with attaining the muscular body needed to compete successfully, while at the same time negotiating expectations to conform to a lean and toned ideal. The purpose of this study was to explore women track and field athletes’ meanings of muscularity. Four adult and four adolescent women participated in focus groups and one-on-one interviews, exploring issues surrounding the body, including ideals and expectations. The participants also took photographs to represent their perceptions of their own muscularity. Four themes emerged: (a) many faces of muscularity, (b) a blurred line between appearance and performance, (c) a culture of comparison, and (d) a journey towards self-acceptance. Muscularity was identified as a complex and context specific experience, reflecting the multiple meanings of muscularity and the periods of struggle on the journey towards self-acceptance of the body.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explored personal (internal assets) and contextual (external assets) outcomes associated with youth sport and found that three particular assets (positive identity, empowerment, and support) are important to focus on in youth sport programs to decrease burnout symptoms and enhance enjoyment.
Abstract: Because millions of youth are involved in sport, the sport context is important to consider in advancing the growth experiences of young people (Cote et al., 2007; Fraser-Thomas et al., 2005). Furthermore, research in developmental psychology has highlighted the value of structured programs, including sport, in helping to promote positive youth development (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006). Youth sport involvement has been linked to high levels of enjoyment (Scanlan et al., 1989), however, negative outcomes, such as burnout, have also been reported (Gould et al., 1996). In the present study, the Developmental Assets Profile (Search Institute, 2004) was used to explore personal (internal assets) and contextual (external assets) outcomes associated with youth sport. Results suggest that three particular assets (positive identity, empowerment, and support) are important to focus on in youth sport programs to decrease burnout symptoms and enhance enjoyment. Path analyses were also conducted to test a proposed model ...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined links between public status and performance in a real-world, high-pressure sport task and found that players with high current status performed worse and seemed to engage more in certain escapist self-regulatory behaviors than players with future status.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine links between public status and performance in a real-world, high-pressure sport task. It was believed that high public status could negatively affect performance through added performance pressure. Video analyses were conducted of all penalty shootouts ever held in three major soccer tournaments (n = 366 kicks) and public status was derived from prestigious international awards (e.g., “FIFA World Player of the year”). The results showed that players with high current status performed worse and seemed to engage more in certain escapist self-regulatory behaviors than players with future status. Some of these performance drops may be accounted for by misdirected self-regulation (particularly low response time), but only small multivariate effects were found.
TL;DR: This paper examined the effect of disguise on an Australian sample of expert (16 male, 2 female, age M = 24.67, SD = 9.47 years) and novice players' anticipation of tennis ground strokes.
Abstract: Skilled performers interpret cues in the preparatory movements of their opponents to anticipate future events in many sports. Little work has tested whether these cues can be disguised. Using a temporal occlusion paradigm, this paper examines the effect of disguise on an Australian sample of expert (16 male, 2 female, age M = 24.67, SD = 9.47 years) and novice players’ (24 male, 38 female, age M = 22.26, SD = 5.24 years) anticipation of tennis ground strokes. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that expert anticipation was more accurate than novice overall (p < .001), and disguise reduced accuracy (p = .001). The disguise effect differed by expertise across occlusion points (p = .027). The experts’ anticipatory advantage was removed by disguise at 40 ms before contact. Novice performance was significantly below chance for disguise shots occluded at contact. These results indicate that disguise is an important topic for research and practice.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors interviewed Australian trainee applied sport psychologists (5 females, 3 males, age range 22-32 years) on three occasions about their development as practitioners across the first 2 years of their graduate education.
Abstract: Applied sport psychology students undergo, more or less, changes in how they see themselves professionally as service providers as they proceed through their graduate training. Knowledge about early professional development, changes, and conflicts would likely help trainees, supervisors, and educators enhance the quality of applied sport psychology education. In this study, we interviewed Australian trainee applied sport psychologists (5 females, 3 males, age range 22–32 years) on three occasions about their development as practitioners across the first 2 years of their graduate education. Trainees' motivations for becoming practitioners and their models of service evolved over the 2 years. When first interacting with clients, trainees often adopted rigid “expert” problem-solving approaches to service delivery. With time and more experience, some individuals began to focus on developing relationships with clients and adapting wider and more flexible interventions to suit athletes' needs. The experiences o...
TL;DR: Stronger attraction to one's team may increase alcohol use but decrease marijuana use among male athletes, suggesting the importance of attraction to team when developing interventions for athletes.
Abstract: This research examined the role of attraction to one's team in predicting alcohol and marijuana use among intercollegiate athletes. Attraction to team and alcohol-related information were collected via an online survey and marijuana use-related information was gathered in a live setting. We investigated the influence of attraction to one's team above and beyond the influence of gender and perceived norms, and attraction to team as a moderator of these relationships. Attraction to one's team accounted for significant variance in marijuana use, and alcohol-related consequences after controlling for alcohol consumption. Regression analyses revealed significant interactions between gender, attraction to team, and norms in predicting alcohol and marijuana use. Stronger attraction to one's team may increase alcohol use but decrease marijuana use among male athletes, suggesting the importance of attraction to team when developing interventions for athletes.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the various stressors faced, and associated coping strategies employed, by five single-handed sailors entered into the 2006/2007 Velux 5 Oceans round-the-world race.
Abstract: The present study sought to examine the various stressors faced, and associated coping strategies employed, by five single-handed sailors entered into the 2006/2007 Velux 5 Oceans round-the-world race. Interviews conducted with the skippers were transcribed and then deductively and inductively content analyzed. Skippers revealed organizational (e.g., environmental conditions, isolation, sleep deprivation), competitive (e.g., lack of progress, yacht-related problems), and personal (e.g., family-related issues) stressors. Strategies used to deal with these demands included problem- (e.g., prioritized sequential thinking), appraisal- (e.g., rationalizing situations), emotion- (e.g., using available communications), and approach-focused coping (e.g., “what if” scenario planning). The present study proposes that future research should examine more closely the stressor-coping strategy relationship to guide the development of successful coping interventions.
TL;DR: In this paper, an across-subjects multiple-baseline design was used to evaluate the effects of solution-focused guided imagery (SFGI) on putting yips in three experienced (24 years or more), accomplished (handicap less than 7), male golfers located in the Southeastern United States.
Abstract: An across-subjects multiple-baseline design was used to evaluate the effects of solution-focused guided imagery (SFGI) on putting yips (e.g., jerk in the putting stroke) in three experienced (24 years or more), accomplished (handicap less than 7), male golfers located in the Southeastern United States. Each golfer participated in at least five SFGI sessions designed to guide him to create vivid images of thinking, feeling, and behaving in ways devoid of the problem (i.e., putting with a smooth continuous stroke). Data collected during participants’ regularly scheduled weekly golf rounds showed an immediate and sustained decrease in yips after SFGI sessions. Maintenance data collected three weeks after the last sessions showed that these decreases were maintained. Discussion focuses on future research and practice related to treatment of the yips and similar focal hand dystonia.
TL;DR: This paper examined the influence of middle school student-athletes' goal orientations, practice strategies, and perceived competence over time as a function of their perceptions of the motivational climate, and found that perceptions of a task-involving climate positively predicted perceived competence and practice strategies at the end of the season after controlling for preseason values.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of middle school student-athletes’ goal orientations, practice strategies, and perceived competence over time as a function of their perceptions of the motivational climate. One hundred twenty-four student-athletes completed a series of surveys three times over the course of their athletic seasons related to goal orientations, practice strategies, perceived athletic competence, and perceived motivational climate. Results indicated that when the perceived motivational climate was incompatible with their goal orientation, there was a significant shift in student-athletes’ goal orientation over time. Findings also indicated that perceptions of a task-involving climate positively predicted perceived competence and practice strategies at the end of the season after controlling for preseason values. These findings provide further evidence for the importance of developing a task-involving climate in the sport setting.
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of a one-to-one intervention designed to increase social support and improve performance using a single-subject multiple baseline design were investigated for three high-level male golfers, mean age 25.0 years (SD = 2.6).
Abstract: This study investigated the effects of a one-to-one intervention designed to increase social support and improve performance using a single-subject multiple baseline design. Participants were 3 high-level male golfers, mean age 25.0 years (SD = 2.6). All participants reported significantly higher levels of emotional, esteem, informational, and tangible support in the intervention phase compared to the baseline phase (ts = −2.35 to −21.80, ps < .01). The performance of all participants improved during the intervention phase compared to the baseline phase. Participant A improved by an average of .90 shots per round, Participant B by 1.33 shots per round, and Participant C by 3.10 shots per round. The effectiveness of the intervention upon performance outcome was supported by a χ2 analysis (χ2 (1) = 4.80, p < .05). The results indicate that a one-to-one intervention may be a useful strategy to increase social support and improve performance.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the effects of a goal-setting intervention upon performance as a function of skill level using a multiple-baseline across-individuals single subject design with 3 elite and 3 non-ite male boxers aged between 15-17 years (M = 16; SD = 1).
Abstract: Using a goal-setting model (Burton, Naylor, & Holliday, 2001), the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a goal-setting intervention upon performance as a function of skill level. A multiple-baseline across-individuals single subject design was employed with 3 elite and 3 nonelite male boxers aged between 15–17 years (M = 16; SD = 1). Self-generated performance behaviors, competition outcome, competitive anxiety intensity and direction, and self-confidence were measured across a competitive season (10-fight period). Retention was also examined following treatment withdrawal (2-fight period). During and after the goal program was completed, the elite participants displayed consistent improvements in targeted behaviors, more facilitative interpretations of anxiety symptoms, and greater self-confidence, whereas the nonelite revealed inconsistent patterns. Postintervention, five out of the six boxers showed improvement in the percentage of fights won. The results highlight the diverse effects of...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined athletes' reported intentional use of slow-motion, real-time, and fast-motion images to varying degrees depending on the function of imagery being employed and the stage of learning of the athlete.
Abstract: The current study examined athletes’ reported intentional use of slow-motion, real-time, and fast-motion images. Athletes (N = 604; 298 males and 306 females; Mage = 21.73 years, SD = 4.54) completed the Image Speed Questionnaire, an instrument created to assess the frequency with which athletes reported employing the three image speeds. Despite the applied sport psychology guideline of imaging only at real time speed, athletes reported employing all three image speeds to varying degrees depending on the function of imagery being employed and the stage of learning of the athlete. Gender and competitive level were found not to influence athletes’ reported voluntary image speed use. Athletes reported employing slow-motion images most often when learning or developing a skill or strategy. Real-time images were consistently used most often by athletes regardless of imagery function or stage of learning, and fast-motion images were used most often when imaging skills or strategies that had been mastered. Findi...