Showing papers in "Journal of Electronic Materials in 2013"

Thermoelectric Generators for Automotive Waste Heat Recovery Systems Part I: Numerical Modeling and Baseline Model Analysis

Abstract: A numerical model has been developed to simulate coupled thermal and electrical energy transfer processes in a thermoelectric generator (TEG) designed for automotive waste heat recovery systems. This model is capable of computing the overall heat transferred, the electrical power output, and the associated pressure drop for given inlet conditions of the exhaust gas and the available TEG volume. Multiple-filled skutterudites and conventional bismuth telluride are considered for thermoelectric modules (TEMs) for conversion of waste heat from exhaust into usable electrical power. Heat transfer between the hot exhaust gas and the hot side of the TEMs is enhanced with the use of a plate-fin heat exchanger integrated within the TEG and using liquid coolant on the cold side. The TEG is discretized along the exhaust flow direction using a finite-volume method. Each control volume is modeled as a thermal resistance network which consists of integrated submodels including a heat exchanger and a thermoelectric device. The pressure drop along the TEG is calculated using standard pressure loss correlations and viscous drag models. The model is validated to preserve global energy balances and is applied to analyze a prototype TEG with data provided by General Motors. Detailed results are provided for local and global heat transfer and electric power generation. In the companion paper, the model is then applied to consider various TEG topologies using skutterudite and bismuth telluride TEMs.

Chemical Stability of (Ag,Cu)2Se: a Historical Overview

Abstract: Recent work on Cu2−xSe has caused strong interest in this material due to its high reported peak zT (1.5) and the reduction of thermal conductivity through the mechanism of liquid-like suppression of heat capacity. In the 1960s, 3M patented Cu1.97Ag0.03Se as “TPM-217.” Over the following decade it was tested and developed by the 3M Corporation, at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Teledyne Energy Systems, and the General Atomics Corporation for use as a next-generation thermoelectric material. During these tests, extreme problems with material loss through Se vaporization and chemical reactions between the material and the device contacts were found. These problems were especially severe while operating under conditions of high \( iL/A. \) As a result, the material system was abandoned. The results of these reports are discussed. A simple test of degradation of Cu2Se under conditions of applied current and thermal gradient was performed and showed results compatible with the work done by General Atomics.

TEG On-Vehicle Performance and Model Validation and What It Means for Further TEG Development

Abstract: A high-temperature thermoelectric generator (TEG) was recently integrated into two passenger vehicles: a BMW X6 and a Lincoln MKT. This effort was the culmination of a recently completed Department of Energy (DOE)-sponsored thermoelectric (TE) waste heat recovery program for vehicles (award #DE-FC26-04NT42279). During this 7-year program, several generations of thermoelectric generators were modeled, designed, built, and tested at the couple, engine, and full-device level, as well as being modeled and integrated at the vehicle level. In this paper, we summarize the history of the development efforts and results achieved during the project, which is a motivation for ongoing research in this field. Results are presented and discussed for bench, engine dynamometer, and on-vehicle tests conducted on the current-generation TEG. On the test bench, over 700 W of power was produced. Over 600 W was produced in on-vehicle tests. Both steady-state and transient models were validated against the measured performance of these TEGs. The success of this work has led to a follow-on DOE-sponsored TE waste heat recovery program for passenger vehicles focused on addressing key technical and business-related topics that are meant to enable TEGs to be considered as a viable automotive product in the future.

Transport Properties of Bulk Thermoelectrics: An International Round-Robin Study, Part II: Thermal Diffusivity, Specific Heat, and Thermal Conductivity

Abstract: For bulk thermoelectrics, improvement of the figure of merit ZT to above 2 from the current values of 1.0 to 1.5 would enhance their competitiveness with alternative technologies. In recent years, the most significant improvements in ZT have mainly been due to successful reduction of thermal conductivity. However, thermal conductivity is difficult to measure directly at high temperatures. Combined measurements of thermal diffusivity, specific heat, and mass density are a widely used alternative to direct measurement of thermal conductivity. In this work, thermal conductivity is shown to be the factor in the calculation of ZT with the greatest measurement uncertainty. The International Energy Agency (IEA) group, under the implementing agreement for Advanced Materials for Transportation (AMT), has conducted two international round-robins since 2009. This paper, part II of our report on the international round-robin testing of transport properties of bulk bismuth telluride, focuses on thermal diffusivity, specific heat, and thermal conductivity measurements.

Thermal Cycling, Mechanical Degradation, and the Effective Figure of Merit of a Thermoelectric Module

Abstract: Thermoelectric modules experience performance reduction and mechanical failure due to thermomechanical stresses induced by thermal cycling. The present study subjects a thermoelectric module to thermal cycling and evaluates the evolution of its thermoelectric performance through measurements of the thermoelectric figure of merit, ZT, and its individual components. The Seebeck coefficient and thermal conductivity are measured using steady-state infrared microscopy, and the electrical conductivity and ZT are evaluated using the Harman technique. These properties are tracked over many cycles until device failure after 45,000 thermal cycles. The mechanical failure of the TE module is analyzed using high-resolution infrared microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. A reduction in electrical conductivity is the primary mechanism of performance reduction and is likely associated with defects observed during cycling. The effective figure of merit is reduced by 20% through 40,000 cycles and drops by 97% at 45,000 cycles. These results quantify the effect of thermal cycling on a commercial TE module and provide insight into the packaging of a complete TE module for reliable operation.

Transport Properties of Bulk Thermoelectrics—An International Round-Robin Study, Part I: Seebeck Coefficient and Electrical Resistivity

Abstract: Recent research and development of high-temperature thermoelectric materials has demonstrated great potential for converting automobile exhaust heat directly into electricity. Thermoelectrics based on classic bismuth telluride have also started to impact the automotive industry by enhancing air-conditioning efficiency and integrated cabin climate control. In addition to engineering challenges of making reliable and efficient devices to withstand thermal and mechanical cycling, the remaining issues in thermoelectric power generation and refrigeration are mostly materials related. The dimensionless figure of merit, ZT, still needs to be improved from the current value of 1.0 to 1.5 to above 2.0 to be competitive with other alternative technologies. In the meantime, the thermoelectric community could greatly benefit from the development of international test standards, improved test methods, and better characterization tools. Internationally, thermoelectrics have been recognized by many countries as a key component for improving energy efficiency. The International Energy Agency (IEA) group under the Implementing Agreement for Advanced Materials for Transportation (AMT) identified thermoelectric materials as an important area in 2009. This paper is part I of the international round-robin testing of transport properties of bulk thermoelectrics. The main foci in part I are the measurement of two electronic transport properties: Seebeck coefficient and electrical resistivity.

A Comparison Between the Mechanical and Thermoelectric Properties of Three Highly Efficient p -Type GeTe-Rich Compositions: TAGS-80, TAGS-85, and 3% Bi 2 Te 3 -Doped Ge 0.87 Pb 0.13 Te

Abstract: Since the 1960s, the TAGS system, namely (GeTe) x (AgSbTe2)1−x , with two specific compositions x = 0.8 and 0.85, known as TAGS-80 and TAGS-85, respectively, was identified as containing highly efficient p-type thermoelectric materials. Recently, another highly efficient p-type GeTe-rich composition, namely 3% Bi2Te3-doped Ge0.87Pb0.13Te, achieving thermoelectric properties comparable to TAGS-based solid solutions, was also reported. Since all of these compositions were obtained by different manufacturing approaches, a comparison between the transport and mechanical properties of these alloys, prepared by the same manufacturing techniques, is required to identify the advantages and disadvantages of these compositions for practical thermoelectric applications. In the current research, the thermoelectric and mechanical properties of three highly efficient GeTe-rich alloys, TAGS-80, TAGS-85, and 3% Bi2Te3-doped Ge0.87Pb0.13Te, following hot pressing, were investigated and compared. Maximal ZT values of ∼1.75, ∼1.4, and ∼1.6 at 500°C were found for these compositions, respectively. Improvement of the mechanical properties was observed by increasing the GeTe content. The influence of the GeTe relative amount on the transport and mechanical properties was interpreted by means of the phase-transition temperatures from the low-temperature rhombohedral to the high-temperature cubic phases.

High-Temperature Measurement of Seebeck Coefficient and Electrical Conductivity

Abstract: We have developed a system for simultaneous measurement of the electrical conductivity and Seebeck coefficient for thermoelectric samples in the temperature region of 300 K to 1000 K. The system features flexibility in sample dimensions and easy sample exchange. To verify the accuracy of the setup we have referenced our system against the NIST standard reference material 3451 and other setups and can show good agreement. The developed system has been used in the search for a possible high-temperature Seebeck standard material. FeSi2 emerges as a possible candidate, as this material combines properties typical of thermoelectric materials with large-scale fabrication, good spatial homogeneity, and thermal stability up to 1000 K.

Improved Thermoelectric Performance of Free-Standing PEDOT:PSS/Bi 2 Te 3 Films with Low Thermal Conductivity

Abstract: Free-standing poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT: PSS)/Bi2Te3 thermoelectric (TE) composite films have been successfully prepared by a simple physical mixing method with different contents of Bi2Te3. x-Ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy were used to analyze the phase composition and microstructure of the composite films. Their TE performance from 100 K to 300 K was systematically investigated. The maximum electrical conductivity of the composite polymer film reached up to 421 S/cm when the film contained 10 wt.% Bi2Te3, corresponding to the highest power factor of 9.9 μW/m/K2, while their Seebeck coefficient fluctuated smoothly in a tiny range (14.2 μV/K to 18.6 μV/K). In addition, a relatively low thermal conductivity of 0.07 ± 0.02 W/m/K has been obtained. The maximum figure of merit of the composite reached up to 0.04 at room temperature, which is a relatively high value in the organic TE field.

Thermoelectric Generators for Automotive Waste Heat Recovery Systems Part II: Parametric Evaluation and Topological Studies

Abstract: A comprehensive numerical model has been proposed to model thermoelectric generators (TEGs) for automotive waste heat recovery Details of the model and results from the analysis of General Motors’ prototype TEG were described in part I of the study In part II of this study, parametric evaluations are considered to assess the influence of heat exchanger, geometry, and thermoelectric module configurations to achieve optimization of the baseline model The computational tool is also adapted to model other topologies such as transverse and circular configurations (hexagonal and cylindrical) maintaining the same volume as the baseline TEG Performance analysis of these different topologies and parameters is presented and compared with the baseline design

Influence of Joining Conditions on Bonding Strength of Joints: Efficacy of Low-Temperature Bonding Using Cu Nanoparticle Paste

Abstract: We investigated a new low-temperature bonding process utilizing Cu nanoparticle paste without addition of sintering promoter. Joint bonding strengths above 30 MPa were achieved even at a low bonding temperature of 250oC. We attribute the higher bonding strengths of joints fabricated using the vacuum preheating process to the rapid progression of Cu nanoparticle sintering due to the activated nanoparticle surface at lower temperatures. The increase in bonding strength depended on the applied pressure, in addition to the bonding temperature. The formation of a dimple-like morphology was confirmed in the ductile fracture area. This indicated that the joint bonded strongly with the bonding layer, in agreement with the results of bonding tests carried out on strongly bonded joints. The bonding ability of the joints obtained using Cu nanoparticle paste could be improved by controlling the joint fabrication conditions.

Chemiresistive Gas Sensing by Few-Layered Graphene

Abstract: A chemiresistive gas sensor based on few-layered graphene (FLG) has been fabricated and evaluated for carbon dioxide (CO2) and liquid petroleum gas (LPG) sensing. The electrochemical exfoliation method was used to synthesize FLG. The resulting sample of FLG was characterized by x-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy with selected-area diffraction. Ultraviolet–visible and fluorescence spectroscopy were employed to study the optical properties. Thermal behavior was analyzed through thermogravimetric–differential thermal analysis. The sensing response of the chemiresistor is defined as the ratio of resistance in gas to air at the stabilized resistance in air. The FLG chemiresistor exhibited good sensing response (3.83 for CO2, 0.92 for LPG), response time (11 s for CO2, 5 s for LPG), recovery time (14 s for CO2, 18 s for LPG), and resolution limit (3 ppm for CO2, 4 ppm for LPG), and excellent stability at room temperature. The gas sensing mechanism is discussed on the basis of marginal difference in Raman intensity and also by using defect chemistry through fluorescence measurements.

Optimized Cu-Sn Wafer-Level Bonding Using Intermetallic Phase Characterization

Abstract: The objective of this study is to optimize the Cu/Sn solid–liquid interdiffusion process for wafer-level bonding applications. To optimize the temperature profile of the bonding process, the formation of intermetallic compounds (IMCs) which takes place during the bonding process needs to be well understood and characterized. In this study, a simulation model for the development of IMCs and the unreacted remaining Sn thickness as a function of the bonding temperature profile was developed. With this accurate simulation model, we are able to predict the parameters which are critical for bonding process optimization. The initial characterization focuses on a kinetics model of the Cu3Sn thickness growth and the amount of Sn thickness that reacts with Cu to form IMCs. As-plated Cu/Sn samples were annealed using different temperatures (150°C to 300°C) and durations (0 min to 320 min). The kinetics model is then extracted from the measured thickness of IMCs of the annealed samples.

Thermal to Electrical Energy Conversion of Skutterudite-Based Thermoelectric Modules

Abstract: The performance of thermoelectric (TE) materials has improved tremendously over the past decade. The intrinsic thermal and electrical properties of state-of-the-art TE materials demonstrate that the potential for widespread practical TE applications is very large and includes TE generators (TEGs) for automotive waste heat recovery. TE materials for automotive TEG applications must have good intrinsic performance, be thermomechanically compatible, and be chemically stable in the 400 K to 850 K temperature range. Both n-type and p-type varieties must be available at low cost, easily fabricated, and durable. They must also form robust junctions and develop good interfaces with other materials to permit efficient flows of electrical and thermal energy. Among the TE materials of interest for automotive waste heat recovery systems are the skutterudite compounds, which are the antimony-based transition-metal compounds RTE4Sb12, where R can be an alkali metal (e.g., Na, K), alkaline earth (e.g., Ba), or rare earth (e.g., La, Ce, Yb), and TE can be a transition metal (e.g., Co, Fe). We synthesized a considerable quantity of n-type and p-type skutterudites, fabricated TE modules, incorporated these modules into a prototype TEG, and tested the TEG on a production General Motors (GM) vehicle. We discuss our progress on skutterudite TE module fabrication and present module performance data for electrical power output under simulated operating conditions for automotive waste heat recovery systems. We also present preliminary durability results on our skutterudite modules.

On the Thermoelectric Properties of Zintl Compounds Mg3Bi2−xPnx (Pn = P and Sb)

Abstract: A series of Zintl compounds Mg3Bi2-xPnx (Pn = P and Sb) have been synthesized by the solid-state reaction method. While Sb can be substituted to a level as high as x = 1.0, P can be substituted only up to x = 0.5. The thermoelectric potential of these compounds has been evaluated by measuring resistivity (ρ), Seebeck (α) and Hall coefficients, and thermal conductivity between 80 K and 850 K. The measured resistivity and Seebeck coefficient values are consistent with those expected for small-bandgap semiconductors. Hall measurements suggest that the carriers are p type with concentration (p) increasing from ~1019 cm−3 to ~1020 cm−3 as the Bi content is increased. The Hall mobility decreases with increasing temperature (T) and reaches a more or less similar value (~45 cm2/V s) for all substituted compositions at room temperature. Due to mass defect scattering, the lattice thermal conductivity (κL) is decreased to a minimum of ~1.2 W/m K in Mg3BiSb. The power factor (α2/ρ) is found to be rather low and falls in the range 0.38 mW/m K2 to 0.66 mW/m K2. As expected, at a high temperature of 825 K, the total thermal conductivity (κ) of Mg3BiSb reaches an impressive value of ~1.0 W/m K. The highest dimensionless figure of merit (ZT) is realized for Mg3BiSb and is ~0.4 at 825 K.

Thermoelectric Properties of High-Doped Silicon from Room Temperature to 900 K

Abstract: Silicon is investigated as a low-cost, Earth-abundant thermoelectric material for high-temperature applications up to 900 K. For the calculation of module design the Seebeck coefficient and the electrical as well as thermal properties of silicon in the high-temperature range are of great importance. In this study, we evaluate the thermoelectric properties of low-, medium-, and high-doped silicon from room temperature to 900 K. In so doing, the Seebeck coefficient, the electrical and thermal conductivities, as well as the resulting figure of merit ZT of silicon are determined.

Synthesis and Characterization of Al-Doped Mg2Si Thermoelectric Materials

Abstract: Magnesium silicide (Mg2Si)-based alloys are promising candidates for thermoelectric (TE) energy conversion for the middle to high range of temperature. These materials are very attractive for TE research because of the abundance of their constituent elements in the Earth’s crust. Mg2Si could replace lead-based TE materials, due to its low cost, nontoxicity, and low density. In this work, the role of aluminum doping (Mg2Si:Al = 1:x for x = 0.005, 0.01, 0.02, and 0.04 molar ratio) in dense Mg2Si materials was investigated. The synthesis process was performed by planetary milling under inert atmosphere starting from commercial Mg2Si pieces and Al powder. After ball milling, the samples were sintered by means of spark plasma sintering to density >95%. The morphology, composition, and crystal structure of the samples were characterized by field-emission scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy, and x-ray diffraction analyses. Moreover, Seebeck coefficient analyses, as well as electrical and thermal conductivity measurements were performed for all samples up to 600°C. The resultant estimated ZT values are comparable to those reported in the literature for these materials. In particular, the maximum ZT achieved was 0.50 for the x = 0.01 Al-doped sample at 600°C.

Copper Wire Bonding Concerns and Best Practices

Abstract: Copper wire bonding of microelectronic parts has developed as a means to cut the costs of using the more mature technology of gold wire bonding. However, with this new technology, changes in the bonding processes as well as bonding metallurgy can affect product reliability. This paper discusses the challenges associated with copper wire bonding and the solutions that the industry has been implementing. The paper also provides information to enable customers to conduct qualification and reliability tests on microelectronic packages to facilitate adoption in their target applications.

Thermoelectric Power Generator Design for Maximum Power: It’s All About ZT

Abstract: There is a significant amount of literature that discusses thermoelectric power generator (TEG) design, but much of it overly simplifies the design space and therefore the results have limited use in designing real-life systems. This paper develops a more comprehensive model of the thermal and electrical interactions of a TEG in a system with known hot-side and cold-side thermal resistances and corresponding constant system temperature differential. Two design scenarios are investigated for common TEG system applications. In one method, the power from a TEG is maximized for a given electrical load, simulating a case where the TEG is electrically in series with a known load such as a fan. In the second design scenario, the power from a TEG is maximized for a given electrical load resistance ratio, n (the ratio between the external load resistance and the internal TEG resistance), simulating an application where the TEG is electrically in series with a load-matching converter. An interesting conclusion from this work is that, in the first design scenario, the electrical load resistance ratio, n, that maximizes TEG power occurs at \( \sqrt {1 + ZT} \) (where ZT is the thermoelectric figure of merit) instead of 1 as reported previously in literature. Equally interesting is that, if you define an analogous thermal resistance ratio, m′ (representing the ratio between the TEG thermal resistance at open-circuit conditions and the system thermal resistance), the maximum power in both design scenarios occurs at \( \sqrt {1 + ZT} \) instead of the commonly cited value of 1. Furthermore, results are presented for real-life designs that incorporate electrical and thermal losses common to realistic TEG systems such as electrical contact resistance and thermal bypass around the TEG due to sealing.

Fabrication of Bismuth Telluride Thermoelectric Films Containing Conductive Polymers Using a Printing Method

Abstract: We prepared a mixture of thermoelectric bismuth telluride particles, a conductive polymer [poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS)], poly(acrylic acid) (PAA), and several organic additives to fabricate thermoelectric films using printing or coating techniques. In the mixture, the organic components (PEDOT:PSS, PAA, and an additive) act as a binder to connect bismuth telluride particles mechanically and electrically. Among the organic additives used, glycerol significantly enhanced the electrical conductivity and bismuth telluride particle dispersibility in the mixture. Bi0.4Te3.0Sb1.6 films fabricated by spin-coating the mixture showed a thermoelectric figure of merit (ZT) of 0.2 at 300 K when the Bi0.4Te3Sb1.6 particle diameter was 2.8 μm and its concentration in the elastic films was 95 wt.%.

Effects of Microstructural Evolution on the Thermoelectric Properties of Spark-Plasma-Sintered Ti 0.3 Zr 0.35 Hf 0.35 NiSn Half-Heusler Compound

Abstract: The MNiSn (M = Ti, Zr, Hf) half-Heusler semiconducting compounds are widely investigated due to their good potential for thermoelectric (TE) power generation applications. In the current work, the evolution of the transport and structural properties of the Ti0.3Zr0.35Hf0.35NiSn compound upon various thermal treatments was studied. The nominal composition was arc melted, ball milled, and spark plasma sintered (SPS). Following SPS, large Hf-rich domains were found by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS). Subsequently, the samples were subjected to homogenization treatments at 1163 K for 480 h and 610 h under argon atmosphere. Following these thermal treatments, the relative amount of the Hf-rich domains was reduced and they became smaller in size, with increasing thermal treatment duration. Nevertheless, no uniphased structure was reached. The dissolution of the Hf-rich domains in the half-Heusler matrix resulted in increase of both the Seebeck coefficient and electrical resistivity values and a decrease of the carrier concentration, attributed to elimination of these metallic domains. Resulting from the high atomic disorder caused by substitution at the M site, low thermal conductivity values of ~3.8 W m−1 K−1 were obtained leading to high ZT values of up to 0.82 following SPS.

Synthesis of Low Coercive BaFe 12 O 19 Hexaferrite for Microwave Applications in Low-Temperature Cofired Ceramic

Abstract: Polycrystalline M-type barium hexaferrite (BaFe12O19) samples have been synthesized by solution combustion route at different pH and calcination conditions in order to reduce the coercivity for microwave applications in low-temperature cofired ceramic (LTCC) substrates. Structural, morphological, and magnetic properties of BaFe12O19 were studied by x-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), Raman spectroscopy, vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM), and Mossbauer spectroscopy. The formation of a single-phase hexagonal structure was confirmed by XRD. The Raman spectra reveal all characteristic peaks of BaFe12O19, illustrating the phase purity and crystal lattice symmetry of the synthesized material. Mossbauer spectra illustrate the existence of Fe3+ cations at all five crystallographic lattice sites. The microstructural features observed by FESEM disclose the growth of nanoregime particles into hexagonal platelet particles after calcination at temperatures from 800°C to 1200°C. The VSM results show a lower coercivity (1350 Oe to 3500 Oe) together with reasonably high saturation magnetization (55 emu/g to 60 emu/g) and a high bulk resistivity (>109 Ω-cm) at room temperature. The dependence of magnetic and electrical properties on the preparation and processing conditions is also discussed.

Mechanical Alloying and Spark Plasma Sintering of Higher Manganese Silicides for Thermoelectric Applications

Abstract: The present challenges in the energy crisis require finding new ways to reduce consumption of fossil fuels. Thermoelectrics can help reduce fuel consumption by producing electricity from waste heat. The higher manganese silicides (HMS) have shown promise in this field as inexpensive, nontoxic, and highly stable p-type thermoelectric materials. One of the production techniques for HMS is mechanical alloying by ball milling. In this research the effect of the ball-milling duration and speed on the phases produced was studied. Mn and Si powders were milled at speeds of 200 RPM to 800 RPM for 1 h to 7 h. X-ray diffraction (XRD) results of the samples prepared using mechanical alloying show deterioration into the MnSi phase. The sample that underwent 5 h of milling at 800 RPM showed the greatest amount of HMS phase and was subsequently spark plasma sintered. The sample showed insufficient thermoelectric properties (ZT ≈ 0.1 at 450°C), compared with either solid-state reaction samples showing ZT ≈ 0.4 or cast samples showing ZT ≈ 0.63 at 450°C. The reduced ZT values of the mechanically alloyed and spark-plasma-sintered samples were attributed to the high relative amount of MnSi phase. The correlation between the relative amount of MnSi and the transport properties is described in detail.

Improvement of Thermoelectric Properties of PEDOT/PSS Films by Addition of Gold Nanoparticles: Enhancement of Seebeck Coefficient

Abstract: Thermoelectric properties of hybrid films composed of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT/PSS) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) stabilized with 3-mercaptopropinoic acid (Au-MPA NPs) and 6-mercaptohexanoic acid (Au-MHA NPs) were investigated. Several factors such as the size and content of the AuNPs, and the chain length of the NP stabilizer were found to influence the thermoelectric properties of the hybrid film. The Seebeck coefficient can be raised by varying the size of the Au-MPA NPs or the content of Au-MHA NPs. The enhancement in the Seebeck coefficient is suggested to be a result of reduced carrier concentration due to the increased number of AuNPs. This could be the first report on the fact that AuNPs enhance the Seebeck coefficient in PEDOT/PSS hybrid films.

Solid-State Synthesis and Thermoelectric Properties of Sb-Doped Mg 2 Si Materials

Abstract: Sb-doped magnesium silicide compounds have been prepared through ball milling and solid-state reaction. Materials produced were near-stoichiometric. The structural modifications have been studied with powder x-ray diffraction. Highly dense pellets of Mg2Si1−x Sb x (0 ≤ x ≤ 0.04) were fabricated via hot pressing and studied in terms of Seebeck coefficient, electrical and thermal conductivity, and free carrier concentration as a function of Sb concentration. Their thermoelectric performance in the high temperature range is presented, and the maximum value of the dimensionless figure of merit was found to be 0.46 at 810 K, for the Mg2Si0.915Sb0.015 member.

Thermal Optimization of the Heat Exchanger in an Automotive Exhaust-Based Thermoelectric Generator

Abstract: Recent advances in thermoelectric technologies have made exhaust-based thermoelectric generators (TEGs) promising to recover waste heat. The thermal performance of the heat exchanger in exhaust-based TEGs is studied in this work. In terms of interface temperature and thermal uniformity, the thermal characteristics of heat exchangers with different internal structures, lengths, and materials are discussed. Following computational fluid dynamics simulations, infrared experiments are carried out on a high-performance production engine with a dynamometer. Simulation and experimental results show that a plate-shaped heat exchanger made of brass with fishbone-shaped internal structure and length of 600 mm achieves a relatively ideal thermal performance, which is practically helpful to enhance the thermal performance of the TEG.

Effects of Different Morphologies of Bi 2 Te 3 Nanopowders on Thermoelectric Properties

Abstract: Thermoelectric Bi2Te3 alloy nanopowders with different morphologies were synthesized by hydrothermal processes with different surfactants. The nanopowders were hot-pressed into pellets, and their thermoelectric properties were investigated. The results show that the morphologies of the nanopowders have remarkable effects on the thermoelectric properties of the hot-pressed bulk pellets. A suitable microstructure of the bulk pellet prepared from flower-like nanosheets was found, having a lower electrical resistivity, larger Seebeck coefficient, and lower thermal conductivity, resulting in a high figure of merit ZT ≈ 1.16. The effects of the nanopowders with different morphologies on the microstructure and thermoelectric properties of hot-pressed bulk pellets are discussed.

Simplification of Low-Temperature Sintering Nanosilver for Power Electronics Packaging

Abstract: Conventional solders cannot meet the requirements for high-temperature applications. Recently, a low-temperature sintering technique involving a nanosilver paste has been developed for attaching semiconductor chips to substrates. Sintered nanosilver joints showed high reliability in high-temperature applications. We used the nanosilver paste to attach 10 mm × 10 mm chips by introducing a pressure as low as only 1 MPa during drying at 185°C. Die-shear tests showed that shear strengths of higher than 50 MPa could be generated by applying 5 MPa at 225°C for only 10 s or 1 MPa at 150°C for 600 s, followed by sintering for only 60 s at 275°C. The sintering temperature could be reduced to 250°C in most applications with a slight reduction in shear strength. As a result of good bonding, significant plastic flow and ductile fracture of the sheared silver joint could be observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). SEM also showed that the fracture of the sheared silver joint was a cohesive failure.

Effect of Ag Content and the Minor Alloying Element Fe on the Mechanical Properties and Microstructural Stability of Sn-Ag-Cu Solder Alloy Under High-Temperature Annealing

Abstract: This study compares the high-Ag-content Sn-3Ag-0.5Cu with the low- Ag-content Sn-1Ag-0.5Cu solder alloy and the three quaternary solder alloys Sn-1Ag-0.5Cu-0.1Fe, Sn-1Ag-0.5Cu-0.3Fe, and Sn-1Ag-0.5Cu-0.5Fe to understand the beneficial effects of Fe on the microstructural stability, mechanical properties, and thermal behavior of the low-Ag-content Sn-1Ag-0.5Cu solder alloy. The results indicate that the Sn-3Ag-0.5Cu solder alloy possesses small primary β-Sn dendrites and wide interdendritic regions consisting of a large number of fine Ag3Sn intermetallic compound (IMC) particles. However, the Sn-1Ag-0.5Cu solder alloy possesses large primary β-Sn dendrites and narrow interdendritic regions of sparsely distributed Ag3Sn IMC particles. The Fe-bearing SAC105 solder alloys possess large primary β-Sn dendrites and narrow interdendritic regions of sparsely distributed Ag3Sn IMC particles containing a small amount of Fe. Moreover, the addition of Fe leads to the formation of large circular FeSn2 IMC particles located in the interdendritic regions. On the one hand, tensile tests indicate that the elastic modulus, yield strength, and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) increase with increasing Ag content. On the other hand, increasing the Ag content reduces the total elongation. The addition of Fe decreases the elastic modulus, yield strength, and UTS, while the total elongation is still maintained at the Sn-1Ag-0.5Cu level. The effect of aging on the mechanical behavior was studied. After 720 h and 24 h of aging at 100°C and 180°C, respectively, the Sn-1Ag-0.5Cu solder alloy experienced a large degradation in its mechanical properties after both of the aging conditions, whereas the mechanical properties of the Sn-3Ag-0.5Cu solder alloy degraded more dramatically after 24 h of aging at 180°C. However, the Fe-bearing SAC105 solder alloys exhibited only slight changes in their mechanical properties after both aging procedures. The inclusion of Fe in the Ag3Sn IMC particles suppresses their IMC coarsening, which stabilizes the mechanical properties of the Fe-bearing SAC105 solder alloys after aging. The results from differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) tests indicate that the addition of Fe has a negligible effect on the melting behavior. However, the addition of Fe significantly reduces the solidification onset temperature and consequently increases the degree of undercooling. In addition, fracture surface analysis indicates that the addition of Fe to the Sn-1Ag-0.5Cu alloy does not affect the mode of fracture, and all tested alloys exhibited large ductile dimples on the fracture surface.

Thermal Cycling Reliability of Sn-Ag-Cu Solder Interconnections—Part 2: Failure Mechanisms

Abstract: Part 1 of this study focused on identifying the effects of (i) temperature difference (ΔT), (ii) lower dwell temperature and shorter dwell time, (iii) mean temperature, (iv) dwell time, and (v) ramp rate on the lifetime of ball grid array (with 144 solder balls) component boards. Based on the characteristic lifetime, the studied thermal cycling profiles were categorized into three groups: (i) highly accelerated conditions, (ii) moderately accelerated conditions, and (iii) mildly/nonaccelerated conditions. In this work, the observed differences in component board lifetime are explained by studying the failure mechanisms and microstructural changes that take place in the three groups of loading conditions. It was observed that, under the standardized thermal cycling conditions (highly accelerated conditions), the networks of grain boundaries formed by recrystallization provided favorable paths for cracks to propagate intergranularly. It is noteworthy that the coarsening of intermetallic particles was strong in the recrystallized regions (the cellular structure had disappeared completely in the crack region). However, under real-use conditions (mildly/nonaccelerated conditions), recrystallization was not observed in the solder interconnections and cracks had propagated transgranularly in the bulk solder or between the intermetallic compound (IMC) layer and the bulk solder. The real-use conditions showed slight coarsening of the microstructure close to the crack region, but the solder bulk still included finer IMC particles and β-Sn cells characteristic of the as-solidified microstructures. These findings suggest that standardized thermal cycling tests used to assess the solder interconnection reliability of BGA144 component boards create failure mechanisms that differ from those seen in conditions representing real-use operation.