Showing papers in "Journal of occupational psychology in 1990"

The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance and normative commitment to the organization

Abstract: Organizational commitment has been conceptualized and measured in various ways. The two studies reported here were conducted to test aspects of a three-component model of commitment which integrates these various conceptualizations. The affective component of organizational commitment, proposed by the model, refers to employees' emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in, the organization. The continuance component refers to commitment based on the costs that employees associate with leaving the organization. Finally, the normative component refers to employees' feelings of obligation to remain with the organization. In Study 1, scales were developed to measure these components. Relationships among the components of commitment and with variables considered their antecedents were examined in Study 2. Results of a canonical correlation analysis suggested that, as predicted by the model, the affective and continuance components of organizational commitment are empirically distinguishable constructs with different correlates. The affective and normative components, although distinguishable, appear to be somewhat related. The importance of differentiating the components of commitment, both in research and practice, is discussed.

The measurement of well-being and other aspects of mental health

Abstract: New instruments iire described for the measurement of both job-related and non-job int-nta! health. These cover two axes of affective well-being, based upon dimensions of pleasure and arousal, and aLso reported competence, aspiration and negative job carry-over. Baseline data are presented from a sample of I6S6 job-holders, and earlier uses ot the well-being scales are summarized. The instruments appear to be psychomertilally acceptable, and are associated with demographic and occupational features in i-xpected ways For example, older employees report greater job-relaced well-being; occupational level ispositivcly correlated with job depressiiin enthusiasm burnegatively ;issociated with job anxiety-contentment; deprL-,ssion-cnthusiasm is mure predictable Irom (ow-to-medium opportunity for skill use and task variety, wiiereas anxietyI ontentment is more a funcrinn {)i wcjrkload or iinccTtainty. Many studies have examined the impact of work and careers on job-related and non-job mental health. Nevertheless, there is still a shortage of instruments whose psychometric properties have been determined through data from large samples of employees of both genders and several occupational levels. In particular, there is a need for measures which can provide information about atiective well-being, SLibjective competence and aspiration, through scores which can be compared with known means and standard deviations from appropriate demographic groups. This paper aims to address those deficiencies, by describing new instruments and summarizing values obtained from a large sample of British job-holders. The approach to affective well-being is through two principal axes ('anxiety-contentment' and 'deprcssion-enrhusiasm') which have emerged us important m non-ocrupacionaJ research, and which will be examined through parallel measures in both job-related and non-job settings. No other instruments are currently available which cover the full range of those axes in both types ol setting. The approach taken is one which emphasizes practicality as well as psychometric acceptability. Many occupational researchers are deterred by the length and cumbersome language ot some previous instruments, and are tempted to introduce their own miidihcations or creare new scales for one-off application. Such cjevelopments prevent the accumulation (jt comparative data and encourage an over-extensive range of instruments which all purport to tap the same construct. It is hoped that the straightforward nature of the stales introduced in this paper will be of value in many occupational settings.

Building organizational commitment: A multifirm study

Abstract: Although much research has been conducted in the area of organizational commitment, few studies have explicitly examined how organizations facilitate commitment among members. Using a sample of 291 respondents from 45 firms, the results of this study show that rigorous recruitment and selection procedures and a strong, clear organizational value system are associated with higher levels of employee commitment based on internalization and identification. Strong organizational career and reward systems are related to higher levels of instrumental or compliance-based commitment.

Rewards, investments, alternatives and organizational commitment: Empirical evidence and theoretical development

Abstract: This paper reports the findings of a study into organizational commitment in a large producer cooperative. The proposition that commitment could be explained as an additive function of rewards, investments and alternatives was explored using a range of attitudinal and behavioural indices of commitment. Multiple regression analysis did not provide support for the full model. Factor analysis of the multiple commitment indices produced little evidence of a general organizational commitment construct. These findings support the view that there are conceptual problems with the organizational commitment construct. It is argued that concentrating on actions rather than entities as commitment targets may be a useful way for research to proceed in this field.

The association between income, financial strain and psychological well‐being among unemployed youths

Abstract: Studies investigating the causes of poor psychological health during unemployment have tended to neglect the role played by financial hardship. This study made use of government-led reductions in the amount of welfare benefits paid to unemployed Australian youths to investigate the possible psychological impact of reduced income during unemployment. Samples of 161 and 201 unemployed youths were obtained before and after the changes were made, respectively. Although respondents in the latter sample received less money from welfare benefits, their overall level of income did not differ from that of the first sample. Analyses showed that respondents reported a range of weekly incomes, from a variety of sources. Correlational analyses on the combined samples showed that the subjective level of financial strain experienced, but not the actual amount of income received, was independently associated with psychological well-being. Lower incomes were not associated with a greater commitment to obtaining a job or a lower level of structured time use, though higher levels of financial strain were associated with both. It is suggested that financial strain mediates the effect of low incomes on psychological health, activity levels, and commitment to obtaining employment.

The relative effects of unemployment and quality of employment on the affect, work values and personal control of adolescents

Abstract: This study examined the relative effects of unemployment and quality of employment on the affective states, personal control and work values of school-leavers. Initially, students were surveyed at school and then reassessed two years later when they were either unemployed, employed or continuing their education. Those in employment were categorized as being in good or poor employment on the basis of the degree to which their jobs allowed them to utilize their skills and education. When school-leavers who obtained good quality employment were compared with those who were unemployed, they had lower depressive affect, higher life-satisfaction, higher internal control and higher personal competence. However, there was little difference on these variables between the unemployed and the poor employment groups. Both of these groups, when compared with students and those in good employment, had higher depressive affect, lower work values and lower personal control. All of these results were confirmed when analyses controlled for testing effects and initial differences on the dependent variables. These results show that the relative effects of employment and unemployment upon adolescents depend on the quality of experienced employment.

Predicting employee commitment to company and union: Divergent models

Abstract: The adequacy of Mowday, Porter & Steers' (1982) model of organizational commitment for predicting both company and union commitment was assessed. Data were obtained from 100 members of a white-collar union. Two months before this study, they had taken part in a three-week strike and were still involved in a dispute with management. Measures of company and union commitment were regressed separately on work experiences (job satisfaction, job involvement and perceived organizational climate) and personal characteristics (educational level, sex, company and union tenure). In neither of the multiple regression analyses did the same predictor account for a significant portion of the variance in both union and company commitment. Job satisfaction, organizational climate and job involvement were significant predictors of company commitment, accounting for 17.8 per cent of the variance. Union tenure was the only significant predictor (5.3 per cent of the variance) of union commitment. The emergence of divergent predictors of company and union commitment suggests the need for greater specificity within the literature on ‘organizational commitment’. Consistent with the differing nature and function of unions and companies, it may be more appropriate to construct separate models of company and union commitment.

Decision making in the graduate selection interview: A field study

Abstract: The influence of candidate non-verbal behaviour (NVB) upon interviewer impression formation in the graduate selection interview was investigated using a modified Brunswik lens model approach. The impact of three dysfunctions in interviewer decision making found to be salient in previous research was also examined: similar-to-me effect, personal liking bias and prototype bias. Thirty-eight graduate interviewers participated in the study and completed assessments on 330 interviewees for 14 diverse occupational groups. Interviewer outcome decisions were found to be substantially linearly dependent upon impressions of candidate personality which were in turn linearly dependent upon candidate facial area NVBs. Overall evaluations correlated r = .50 with ratings of similarity-to-self and r = .64 with ratings of personal liking, indicating the pervasive bias of these two factors. Virtually no significant differences were found in accepted candidate personality profiles across the 14 job functions, suggesting the marked impact of prototype bias upon interviewer decision making. Implications for graduate recruitment practices, particularly usage of the selection interview, are discussed.

Gender differences in job attribute preferences: Work—home role conflict and job level as mediating variables

Abstract: Role theory is used to test the notion that inter-role conflict between work and non-work spheres of life explains why men and women have been known to prefer different job attributes. Four job attribute factors were tested: intrinsic, career orientation, work conditions and parental support. Together with job level, all variables and their causal linkages were modelled in a path diagram. Multiple regression and path analysis were used to test the model. Questionnaires were distributed in northeast USA to married, employed parents, and usable responses were received from 155 males and 161 females. Results show that males and females differ on three of the four job attribute categories: career orientation (r = -.14, p < .01); work conditions (r = .31, p < .01); and parental support (r = .51, p < .01), and that females experience more role conflict than males (r = .38, p < .01). Role conflict explains in part why men and women differ on the parental support factor. However, job level, rather than role conflict, explains gender differences on the career orientation and work conditions factors.

Union commitment: An examination of antecedent and outcome factors

Abstract: This research examined antecedent and outcome models for all four factors of union commitment (loyalty to the union, responsibility to the union, willingness to work for the union and belief in unionism). A hypothesis that union commitment would act as an intervening variable between the antecedents and outcomes was also tested. Unionized employees (n = 481) from a large mid-western communications company completed a survey. Antecedents of loyalty to the union included national and local union mission fulfilment, and chief steward and officer accessibility. Chief steward accessibility and sex were identified as antecedents of responsibility to the union. Belief in unionism was predicted by local union mission fulfilment. Both national and local union mission fulfilment were significant antecedents of willingness to work for the union. All of the outcomes in the study, both behavioural (attendance at union meetings, union activity and member voting behaviour) and attitudinal (cognitive consideration in voting, member support for political action), were related to at least one of the four factors. Support was also found for establishing union commitment as an intervening variable between the hypothesized antecedents and outcomes.

Coping with job-related stress: The case of teachers

Abstract: In a study involving 67 veteran New York City teachers five occupational coping scales were constructed: advice seeking, positive comparisons, selective ignoring, discipline and direct action. Multiple regression analyses with controls for social-demographic factors and adversity in the job environment indicated that advice seeking and direct action were most consistently related to lower (depressive and psychophysiologic) symptom levels and that positive comparisons and direct action were most consistently related to higher morale (job satisfaction and motivation to continue in the profession). Selective ignoring appeared to buffer the impact of adverse work environments on symptoms. The results suggest that teaching may constitute an occupational role which is an exception to Pearlin & Schooler's (1978) more general findings on the lack of efficacy of work-related coping behaviours.

The effects of tolerance for ambiguity on feedback-seeking behaviour

Abstract: In an article that appeared in this Journal in 1985, Ashford & Cummings found that tolerance for ambiguity (TA) moderated the relationship between feedback-seeking behaviours (FSB) and ambiguity or uncertainty about one's role or outcome contingencies. The authors concluded that, in uncertain situations, individuals who are low in TA will consider feedback an especially valuable resource, and will engage in higher levels of FSB. The aim of this article is to expand and reinterpret the Ashford & Cummings' (1985) findings by reanalysing their data with two substantive differences. First, while job-related and problem-solving TA were proposed as conceptually distinct by Norton (1975), and loaded on separate factors in the factor analysis performed by Ashford & Cummings (1985), they were grouped together in their analysis, thus raising the question of how these two aspects of TA might operate differently with respect to FSB. Second, in investigating the consequences of TA for FSB, Ashford & Cummings used a global measure of FSB which combined feedback specifically sought from boss or co-workers, and feedback inferred from comparisons with others, social cues and other events. This measure also combined feedback sought for a variety of purposes beyond simply assessing performance. Based on earlier work by Ashford & Cummings (1983), Greller & Herold (1975) and others, it is possible that this global measure of FSB is masking important differences due to either the specific seeking strategy, the reason for seeking or even the source from which feedback is sought. To investigate the above theoretical distinctions between different types of TA and FSB using the Ashford & Cummings' (1985) data, two hypotheses were tested. First, since FSB could be considered an attempt to reduce uncertainty in one's work environment (Ashford, 1986), job-related TA, which involves an individual's concern about his/her standing at work, should be associated with FSB for determining the adequacy of performance or potential for advancement. Problem-solving TA, which reflects a general intolerance for ambiguity in any task, should not be associated with FSB about workplace issues, because the sources of the uncertainty which the person low in problem-solving TA finds aversive are not necessarily at work. Second, when allowing for different types of FSB (monitoring the work environment, solicitations from supervisors and solicitations from co-workers), low job-related TA should be associated with greater soliciting behaviours rather than monitoring behaviours because of the less ambiguous nature of the resulting feedback (Ashford & Cummings, 1983). In other words, feedback which an individual gathers through monitoring the environment may itself be more difficult to interpret than solicited feedback, and thus have less value in reducing ambiguity.

Assessment centre dimensions, personality and aptitudes

Abstract: Assessees at two assessment centres (N = 117 and N = 157) completed personality inventories and aptitude tests. Correlations between personality attributes and assessment dimensions were generally low, and suggested that some attributes permitted competencies to be expressed in behaviour. Correlations between intellectual aptitude and dimensions were higher, with aptitude being related to the more cognitive dimensions. Implications for assessment centre practice are explored.

Coping with occupational stress among urban bus and tram drivers

Abstract: The purpose of this study was twofold: first, to identify the ways public transport drivers cope with stressful events of daily working life. One hypothesis is that stress-induced problems at work are resistant to direct actions and that this may be even more the case among blue-collar workers who typically have less control than managerial and professional staff. Emotion-focused rather than problem-focused forms of coping may therefore be the more prevalent. The second aim was to examine the relationships between coping processes and adaptational outcomes such as work strain and somatic complaints. The discussion about the effectiveness of different coping strategies shows a positive bias toward problem-focused approaches. Yet there is little empitical evidence confirming either the superiority of problem-solving attempts or the ineffectiveness of efforts to manage the stress-related emotions (Menaghan & Merves, 1984).

The impact of health habits and life‐style on the stressor—strain relationship: An evaluation of three industries

Abstract: Three industry populations representing a total of 58 organizations and more than 3000 individuals were surveyed to assess the influence of life-style and health habits on stress outcomes. Results suggest a strong direct relationship between life-style and health habits and stress outcomes. Contrary to hypotheses, life-style and health habits did not consistently moderate, or ‘buffer’, the stressor-strain linkage.

Gender and perceived power in manager—subordinate relations

Abstract: A field study in three organizations investigated gender differences in subordinates' perceptions of managers' power. For 55 female and 55 male managers matched on position power, one subordinate per manager (N = 110, half male and half female) completed a questionnaire. Perceived reward, legitimate, expert and referent power were all intercorrelated, but unrelated to coercive power. Male and female managers did not show the expected differences in combined, reward, coercive, legitimate and referent power. Contrary to predictions, subordinates rated female managers higher than male managers on expert power. Male managers with female subordinates were rated lower on combined and expert power than other gender combinations. Implications are discussed.

Self‐ratings, supervisor ratings, positions and performance

Abstract: Self-ratings and supervisor ratings were obtained for 40 unit managers. Self-ratings were predicted by length of service, whereas supervisor ratings were also predicted by previous appraisal ratings, performance, and career progression. Both self-ratings and supervisor ratings predicted subsequent performance in the form of unit admissions and gross profit. The predictive power of self-ratings was explained in terms of the interactive theory of self-efficacy.

Performance evaluation and compensation feedback messages: An integrated model

Abstract: A theoretical model is developed which looks at both performance evaluation and compensation decisions as feedback messages. Underlying and critical to the model is the role of causal attributions made by both the supervisor/source and recipient of feedback about the causes of the recipient's performance. Specific hypotheses are generated which account for discrepancies between supervisor and subordinate about these causes of performance. In addition, the presence and impact of external organizational constraints on feedback recipients' perceptions and performance are discussed.

The relationship between simplified jobs and mental health: A replication study

Abstract: This paper replicates an earlier study testing the hypothesis that relatively poor mental health is associated with simplified jobs, but only for those employees who see their work as not using their skills, and who at the same time report high levels of cognitive failure. The hypothesis is confirmed in two separate samples.

A longitudinal study of the relationship between frequent job change and psychological well-being

Abstract: A longitudinal study of male clients on social security in Stockholm (N = 76) investigated changes in employment status and the relationship to well-being after a one-year follow-up. Almost half of the men were frequent job changers which resulted in repeated periods of short-term unemployment. They also had a very low mean value of general mental health and a high degree of drug abuse. The question investigated was whether changes in employment status had the same impact on psychological well-being in this group as in other unemployed groups. The impact of general mental health and frequency of job change was tested in a hypothetical model of factors often found to be important for the relationship between employment status change and changes in well-being. Results indicated that re-employment was significantly related to increased sense of well-being. The expected decline in psychological well-being was found in only one of the unemployed groups but one of the other groups instead experienced significant increases in well-being. This was interpreted as a possible sign of adaptation to repeated unemployment with delayed negative reactions during unemployment compared to other groups of unemployed. Another indication of adaptation could be the unexpected lack of association between employment commitment and well-being. Testing of the model revealed no direct relationship between changes in psychological well-being and changes in employment status. The relationship was indirect and mediated by general mental health. It was concluded that the results indicated adaptation to frequent job change but that a rival explanation of increased vulnerability caused by earlier psychological problems was more plausible.

Staff/line distinctions in job and organizational commitment

Abstract: Recently researchers have begun to investigate distinctions between job and organizational commitment. The study reported here investigated the relationship between staff/line distinctions and the two categories of commitment. The degree of perceived fit between job and organizational goals was suggested as an intervening variable. A sample of 207 police officers responded to a questionnaire that measured moral and calculative organizational commitment and job commitment. Findings supported the hypothesis that line employees would show more job commitment than staff personnel. In addition, the perceived fit variable explained most of these observed differences. Limitations of the measures and comparisons with findings from related areas are presented.

Longitudinal examination of the stability and variability of two common measures of absence

Abstract: This study, conducted amongst 121 employees in two hospitals, examines sources of variability in two common measures of absence: frequency and time-lost. Time series analyses over a five-year span suggest substantial differences by month, season and year. More specifically, the analysis of variance of the frequency measure reveals significant differences between seasons and years and a significant season by year interaction. Peak frequencies are systematically recorded during the winter season, while the lowest occur in summer. These trends are less prominent with the time-lost measure, with only the seasonal differences remaining significant. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of these findings for the study and measurement of absenteeism.

Consequences of changing employers amongst young engineers.

Abstract: Based on a sample of young professional engineers, this investigation studied the relationship between job change, job demands and psychological strain. Job change was studied by comparing those engineers who changed their employer (over a two-year interval) with those who remained with the same employer. Respondents changing employer reported decreases in some job demand and psychological strain levels after their change, whereas those who stayed with their employer reported increases in demand and strain. Changing employer was also compared with other forms of job change, namely changes in work area and changes in field of engineering. Overall, the results lend more support to a ‘proactive growth’ model of job change than a ‘stress-coping’ model (Nicholson & West, 1988).

Organization and personality correlates of participative behaviours using an in-basket exercise

Abstract: The present study was designed to initiate evaluation of an in-basket measure of managerial participative decision making, examine the organization of participative behaviours, and examine the relations between participative tendency and six personality traits selected from the Personality Research Form (PRF; Jackson, 1986) and the Jackson Personality Inventory (JPI; Jackson, 1976). In-basket responses from 78 Canadian managers were coded for six participative behaviours: (1) delegation, (2) seeking advice, (3) following advice, (4) requesting to meet with an individual, (5) seeking non-advisory information, and (6) asking to be kept informed as to how a problem is developing. Results showed that these behaviours are reliably measured with an in-basket simulation, and supported a unidimensional interpretation of participative tendency as an individual difference variable. As predicted, PRF-cognitive structure was negatively related to participative tendency; but contrary to prediction, both PRF-autonomy and PRF-dominance correlated positively with participative tendency. Interpretations of these findings call for research into the role of authority-threatening situations in moderating the links between PDM and power-based motives. Implications for personnel decision making are discussed.

Reliability of exercise ratings in the leaderless group discussion

Abstract: The demonstrated low correlations of dimension ratings across assessment centre exercises has led to reservations about their use. A proposed alternative is the use of overall exercise ratings that may represent total performance on work simulations. Three forms of reliability of such exercise ratings were studied in this laboratory experiment. The study design incorporated four groups of assessors and 31 participants in multiple Leadership Group Discussion (LGD) problems. (LGD was chosen because it is extensively used in assessment centres.) Inter-rater reliability, as measured by intra-class correlations within an assessor group, ranged from .69 to .99. Intergroup reliability, as measured by correlations of consensus ratings between assessor groups that had observed identical LGD groups, was .66 to .84. Alternate form reliability, as measured by correlations of overall ratings by the same assessor of participants in two different LGD problems, was .35 to .62. The implications of these findings for the use of overall exercise ratings are discussed.

Two tests of direct gender bias in job evaluation ratings

Abstract: The study reported here investigated the effects of gender-linked job title, percentage of female job incumbents, and inclusion/exclusion of current pay information on job evaluation scores One hundred and sixty-eight upper division business students rated five jobs on the five compensable factors of a job evaluation system used by a department of the Canadian government Job title was manipulated by changing ‘special assistant-accounting’ on one job description to ‘senior secretary-accounting’ the stated number of male and female job incumbents was also altered experimentally on that job description The results indicated that subjects assigned significantly lower job evaluation ratings to the manipulated job description with the female-stereotyped title than the same description with the more gender-neutral title However, the stated percentage of women in the job did not appear to influence ratings on the manipulated job Knowledge of current pay rates among the five jobs did not moderate the other effects Implications of these findings for pay equity (comparable worth) are discussed

Clarification and correction of Steiner & Truxillo's (1989) improved test of the disaggregation hypothesis

Abstract: Steiner & Truxillo (1989) recently presented a study on the disaggregation hypothesis of the relationship between job and life satisfactions. The disaggregation hypothesis proposes that the relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction will be moderated by the importance of work to an individual's life. Previous research on the hypothesis (see Steiner & Truxillo, 1989) suffered from weaknesses in three areas which Steiner & Truxillo sought to correct: (1) a weak measure of life satisfaction, (2) an inadequate measure of the work value, and (3) a potentially weak statistical technique. The Steiner & Truxillo study remains an improvement on the first two areas; however, more recent evidence suggests that the statistical technique did not in fact require improving. In recent years, investigators of moderating effects have relied on ordinary least squares (OLS) regression approaches to test for the significance of such effects (see Cohen & Cohen, 1983; Zedeck, 1971). Disappointment both with the infrequency of detecting such effects and with the small size of effects detected (Cohen, 1969; Morris et al., 1986) prompted Morris et al. (1986) to propose an alternative strategy for conducting the analysis. The new procedure, referred to as principal components regression (PCR) is used to overcome multicollinearity problems encountered in regression analyses. Morris et al. proposed using the PCR procedure when multicollinearity was problematic in moderated regression analyses. In an effort to stay current with the latest developments in moderator regression analysis, it was the PCR approach that Steiner & Truxillo used as the statistical improvement in their study. Articles appearing subsequent to the Morris et al. piece and the preparation of the Steiner & Truxillo study have, however, convincingly argued that PCR provides an inaccurate analysis of moderator effects (Cronbach, 1987; Dunlap & Kemery, 1987). Therefore, Steiner & Truxillo's (1989) improved test was based on an incorrect analysis. The correct analysis, based on OLS moderated multiple regression analysis, was included in the article; however, those results indicated that the importance of work does not moderate the relationship between job and life satisfactions. This conclusion is contrary to the results based on the PCR procedure. Due to the strength of the correlation between job and life satisfaction in the Steiner & Truxillo data, the more straightforward spillover hypothesis, wherein job satisfaction and life satisfaction are positively related, appears to be better supported. This finding is consistent with a recent meta-analysis on this topic (Tait, Padgett & Baldwin, 1989). Other moderators, particularly coping, as proposed by Steiner & Truxillo (1989), might prove more successful in future research than the work value was. The OLS procedure (see Cohen & Cohen, 1983, for a complete discussion) remains the technique of choice to analyse for moderator effects. But, as Cronbach (1987) pointed out, power to detect moderator effects appears limited. He encouraged further investigation into research methods that would be more sensitive to detecting moderator effects. Without more powerful approaches, significant moderators are likely to go undetected, thus discouraging researchers from studying them.

Central tendency and its impact on three SDy procedures: A case study

Abstract: This study investigated the extent of convergence among SDy estimates from three different techniques. As reported, the dollar-based (Schmidt, Hunter, McKenzie & Muldrow, 1979) and performance-based (Eaton, Wing & Mitchell, 1985) judgemental estimates were nearly equivalent to the precentage of salary SDy estimate (Hunter, Schmidt & Judiesch, in press). Close inspection revealed that these similarities were, in large part, attributable to the various measures of central tendency adopted by these procedures.