Showing papers in "Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science in 2014"

Drifting into failure: theorising the dynamics of disaster incubation

Abstract: Ergonomic theory holds that accidents are preceded by periods of gradually increasing (but essentially unrecognised) risk, known originally in man-made disaster theory as the incubation period. This paper discusses the theorising of the dynamics of such accident incubation. It considers theoretical contributions – ranging from high-reliability to control theory to resilience engineering – for their ability to illuminate the driving forces behind a gradual shift in norms and erosion of safety margins, and for their ability to effectively track and represent such changes over time.

Understanding reliance on automation: effects of error type, error distribution, age and experience

Abstract: An obstacle detection task supported by "imperfect" automation was used with the goal of understanding the effects of automation error types and age on automation reliance. Sixty younger and sixty older adults interacted with a multi-task simulation of an agricultural vehicle (i.e. a virtual harvesting combine). The simulator included an obstacle detection task and a fully manual tracking task. A micro-level analysis provided insight into the way reliance patterns change over time. The results indicated that there are distinct patterns of reliance that develop as a function of error type. A prevalence of automation false alarms led participants to under-rely on the automation during alarm states while over relying on it during non-alarms states. Conversely, a prevalence of automation misses led participants to over-rely on automated alarms and under-rely on the automation during non-alarm states. Older adults adjusted their behavior according to the characteristics of the automation similarly to younger adults, although it took them longer to do so. The results of this study suggest the relationship between automation reliability and reliance depends on the prevalence of specific errors and on the state of the system. Understanding the effects of automation detection criterion settings on human-automation interaction can help designers of automated systems make predictions about human behavior and system performance as a function of the characteristics of the automation.

Understanding human management of automation errors.

Abstract: Automation has the potential to aid humans with a diverse set of tasks and support overall system performance. Automated systems are not always reliable, and when automation errs, humans must engage in error management, which is the process of detecting, understanding, and correcting errors. However, this process of error management in the context of human-automation interaction is not well understood. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review of the variables that contribute to error management. We examined relevant research in human-automation interaction and human error to identify critical automation, person, task, and emergent variables. We propose a framework for management of automation errors to incorporate and build upon previous models. Further, our analysis highlights variables that may be addressed through design and training to positively influence error management. Additional efforts to understand the error management process will contribute to automation designed and implemented to support safe and effective system performance.

The role of cue utilisation and adaptive interface design in the management of skilled performance in operations control

Abstract: The operational control of complex systems such as power control and air traffic control is increasingly relegated to advanced technology devices with the expectation that operations controllers will maintain oversight of system and intervene where appropriate. Moreover, the centralisation of operations control has resulted in the oversight of systems remotely, typically through a human–machine interface. This article discusses the principles that underlie the design of interfaces for remote systems, drawing on theories of skill acquisition to address the needs of less experienced operators who are increasingly being engaged as operations controllers. Specifically, adaptive interfaces are advocated that are designed to facilitate the progression to expertise. Using cue utilisation as an underlying theoretical perspective, interfaces can be designed to extract and emphasise the relationship between features and events that eventually form the basis of the cues employed by expert practitioners.

A formative approach to the strategies analysis phase of cognitive work analysis

Abstract: Strategies Analysis, the third phase of Cognitive Work Analysis, helps investigators consider the range of ways in which workers can perform control tasks. Most existing approaches to Strategies Analysis identify a limited number of domain-specific strategies. We present a two-phase formative Strategies Analysis method intended to expose the range of strategies possible within a work system and the likelihood that different types of strategies will be selected in different contexts. The first phase, the preparatory phase, identifies generalised constraints that affect the range and selection of strategies, and the categories of strategies that may be applied to any domain. In the second phase, the application phase, investigators use the outputs of the preparatory phase to explore the impact that different work situations, tasks and workers have on the categories of strategies most likely to be adopted.

A situated approach to the acquisition of shared SA in team contexts

Abstract: Theories of team situation awareness (SA) differ in the information they require operators to have for effective coordination. Endsley stresses shared SA, whereas distributed SA argues that coordination involves transactive and compatible SA. We distinguish between weak and strong shared SA, and argue the latter enhances communication and increases team cohesion. Although we agree with Endsley on the importance of shared SA, we argue her account of how it is acquired exceeds the working memory capacity of individual team members. We offer an account consistent with our situated SA perspective that claims individuals off-load information to their environment whenever possible to minimise effortful internal processing. We argue that our approach, in conjunction with Pickering and Garrod's (2004, Towards a mechanistic psychology of dialogue. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 27, pp. 169–226) interactive-alignment model, can explain how shared SA is acquired, relying on automatic processes enacted when individua...

Ergoecology: fundamentals of a new multidisciplinary field

Abstract: This article conceptualises a new multidisciplinary field by establishing the elements of an ‘ergonomic system’ (human beings, physical space and object/machine) and defining the term ‘surroundings’ (PESTE factors) while emphasising the ecological aspects of human activities. The definition of ergoecology is explained by an etymological analysis of the names of the contributing disciplines (ergonomics and ecology). The new multidiscipline combines and extends the scope of the two foundational disciplines using new principles, notions and concepts, such as ‘built environment’, ‘surroundings’, ‘ergoecology’, ‘ecoefficiency’ and ‘ecoproductivity’. The aim of ergoecology is to provide tools for confronting twenty-first century challenges. In line with the sustainability movement, we believe in the importance of using ecologic and ergonomic perspectives (in their broadest sense) to develop action aimed towards environmental preservation and the development of sustainable products, processes and service designs.

Challenges in evaluating skill transfer from construction equipment simulators

Abstract: Approaches for construction equipment operator training include several Virtual Reality-based simulators that are being promoted by construction equipment manufacturers. Systems range in their fidelity to real-world conditions, with a trainee seated in front of a monitor displaying a 3D-modelled training scenario, variously incorporating mock-ups of the operator controls, seat, and cabin; equipment noise and motion. The motivation for such training platforms is the ability to simulate innumerable conditions while avoiding potentially hazardous and expensive field training. The complexity represented by numerous machine types and functions, control mechanisms and configurations and operating environment conditions creates challenges for measuring skill development on the simulator and transfer of skill from the simulator to real-world operations. We discuss these challenges and present our current thinking as informed by relevant literature review and insights gained from a study of skill development and t...

Reliability and validity of findings in ergonomics research

Abstract: Evaluation of findings in ergonomics/human factors (E/HF) research suffers from misconceived assessments in terms of reliability and validity. Evaluation of E/HF studies published after 2000 confirms these observations. With an eye on these misconceived assessments, the present paper focuses on the consequences of various types of human involvement in (co-)shaping the phenomena to be evaluated. Issues addressed include the questionability of the inter-individual equivalence of findings, the defectiveness of the reliability coefficient as dispersion measure and the elusiveness of intended/presumed measurement as a validity criterion. These deficiencies are at odds with the zeal of E/HF authors to flag their findings as ‘reliable’ and ‘valid’. In particular, positive evaluations of findings may show off as rhetoric. An evaluation procedure of consecutive constituents in a flowchart is proposed as an aid for appropriate evaluations. Various conditions are discussed that may encourage the adoption of correct ...

Levels of automation: effects of individual differences on wheelchair control performance and user acceptance

Abstract: This paper presents an evaluation of the levels of automation. It draws on a prototype of an electrically powered wheelchair as an example of an ordinary automation device operated by less trained users with a broad range of abilities. A study is described during which 21 participants drove through a standardised course three times. Each time, another level of automation was active. As criteria, joint human-automation performance and user acceptance were measured. As predictors, fine motor abilities were assessed and task complexity was recorded. The analyses showed that higher levels of automation achieved lower user acceptance ratings. In contrast, higher levels of automation fostered better performance especially when less able participants steered the wheelchair and when the routes were more complex.

Commentary on the paper by Heimrich Kanis entitled ‘Reliability and validity of findings in ergonomics research’: where is the methodology in ergonomics methods?

Abstract: This paper is a commentary on Kanis’ target paper in this issue. Kanis raised deficiencies in the reporting of reliability and validity of ergonomics methods in the literature and proposes a framework for the future. This paper applauds the approach and extends it. Despite the proliferation of ergonomics methods, there is a paucity of data on reliability and validity. There are many other aspects of the methods’ performance that could be reported as well, including the utility of the method. The structure of method reporting would benefit from some standardisation to enable comparison of approaches and usability of the method itself. It is also understood that the gathering of data on reliability and validity will be ongoing, as methods evolve and domain boundaries are crossed.

Using a simulated environment to investigate experiences reported during space travel

Abstract: Astronauts report certain experiences that can be classified as awe and wonder when looking out of their space station or shuttle portals at two different stimuli: the earth and deep space. Based on these reports, it was of interest to further investigate those types of experiences by using a mixed-reality environment resembling an International Space Station workstation designed to expose subjects to simulated stimuli of the earth and deep space. The study is multidisciplinary, involving simulation construction, physiological assessment, psychological testing, textual analysis, and phenomenological interviews. The goal was to induce in the average person the experiences and responses of the astronauts. Preliminary results show promise for using a virtual/mixed-reality environment in a laboratory when assessing cognitive/affective experiences, such as awe and wonder, found in a real-world context.

Understanding ‘interpersonal trust’ from a human factors perspective: insights from situation awareness and the lens model

Abstract: Trust has become a hot topic in the academic world in the past few decades. Authors from a variety of fields, especially human factors, have developed field-specific approaches to understanding trust. However, in the field of human factors, researchers usually take the approach of modelling how trust is formed between humans and automation. There is still a gap in the human factors literature with regard to frameworks for supporting the development of socio-technical systems where interpersonal trust is a desired design output. Through the combination of mainstream trust literature with human factors frameworks such as situation awareness and the lens model, we have developed a model that not only supports the understanding of interpersonal trust formation and the design of systems that foster the development of interpersonal trust, but also fills an existing gap in the trust modelling literature concerning the detailed description of the interpersonal trust state formation process.

A review of shape and size considerations in pinch grips

Abstract: In handgrip-related studies, it has been theorised that modifying the design of object shapes and sizes to accommodate the hand can reduce risks of cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs). However, there appears to be a lack of theoretical groundwork to support this premise in the area of pinch grip research. Therefore, this article aims to provide a review of shape and size considerations in pinch grips. The literature reviews were first conducted individually on shape, size and pinch grip factors, followed by the development of a literature summary based on the theoretical connections among shape, size and pinch grips. Though further studies are still required, this review has provided fundamental knowledge on possible theoretical connections among shape, size and pinch grip factors. These preliminary efforts shed light on potential mechanisms that explain how shape and size can influence pinch grips towards preventing CTDs and maximising the human performance.

Using systemic structural activity approach in identifying strategies enhancing human performance in mining production drilling activity

Abstract: This article seeks to identify performance-enhancing strategies that could be used to improve and optimise human–technology collaboration in rock drilling ‘activity’ in deep mines. Results from the ...

Not a minor problem: involving adolescents in medical device design research

Abstract: This article outlines how adolescents are currently overlooked as a specific user group of medical devices and positions the contribution that ergonomics (human factors) can make in mitigating this issue. Details are provided of the current barriers to adolescent inclusion in medical device design research. The discussion then provides guidance and suggested strategies for researchers, clinical staff and medical device developers about how to overcome difficulties such as ethical considerations and gaining access to this specific population. This is tackled through discussion of: informed consent, assent, gatekeepers, confidentiality, appropriateness of topics and proxies. The overall aim of this article is to raise awareness about adolescents in ergonomics research, specifically for the elicitation of requirements for medical devices.

Situation awareness and maritime traffic: having awareness or being in control?

Abstract: Situation awareness (SA) is generally seen as a mental representation of the system state, an objective measure of the ‘situation out there’. In this article, the authors make an argument that SA can only have a meaning in relation to the task of the user and characteristics of the system. This will be argued with the help of a specific environment: vessel traffic monitoring. The long-time constants and the complex constraints imposed on the ship require that the operator monitoring the traffic has a good SA: the operator must make long-term predictions about possible traffic developments. For this, being in control and having SA are inseparable characteristics of the same process.

Personality trait theory and multitasking performance: implications for ergonomic design

Abstract: Although system designers usually minimise the role of individual differences in operation, personality variables could explain differences in multitasking performance. A concomitant theoretical issue is whether primary or surface personality traits do a better job of predicting performance than the Five-Factor Model (FFM) or global traits. A sample of 174 undergraduates completed the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), which was followed by a performance task. A computer-based task that measured simultaneous performance on an arithmetic task and a mental rotation task was used to measure multitasking performance; scores measured the percent accuracy. Primary traits for low emotional sensitivity and high abstractedness, self-control, and general reasoning were all correlated with performance (R 2 = .11), but global or traits corresponding to the FFM were not, except in one sporadic task trial. There was also a strong gender effect on performance. Implications for the study of personality trai...

Better integration of human factors considerations within safety in design

Abstract: ‘Safety in design’ is becoming an increasingly used approach in a variety of domains. Also known as ‘safe design’ or ‘prevention through design’, the general process seeks to eliminate health and safety hazards, or minimise potential risks, by systematically involving end-users and decision makers in the full life cycle of the designed product or system. This article focuses on the need to better integrate human factors considerations within safe design for high-hazard industries. In particular, it describes the benefits of applying a task-based approach to assist design processes. By way of presenting a safe design method for equipment used in mining, it shows the need to obtain end-user input both to better reveal design deficiencies and to identify effective solutions for future equipment. Overall, a multidisciplinary framework is advocated, in particular by blending human factors techniques and structured risk management methods with the existing equipment design processes.

A review of different pinch techniques

Abstract: Individuals often pinch with preferred pinch techniques based on their experience and familiarity. However, researchers believe that pinch force exertions are not comparable across different pinch techniques. Hence, it is possible to pinch objects with incompatible pinch techniques during manual handling. This increases risks of developing musculoskeletal disorders. The preceding problem substantiates the need for a comprehensive understanding of definitions, categorisations and capacities of different pinch techniques. Nevertheless, the knowledge on pinch techniques appears to be highly dispersed and not compiled to a level systematic enough for further research. Thus, this review aims to develop a consolidated theoretical groundwork on pinch techniques. It presents an anthology of terminologies, previous findings and concepts underpinning different pinch techniques. While much research is still required, it is believed that an improved understanding on pinch techniques is now within sight, due to, in pa...

A multidimensional analysis of the relations of basic and applied psychology

Abstract: In an essay addressing the nature of the emergent field of applied cognitive science, Hoffman and Deffenbacher [Hoffman, R.R. and Deffenbacher, K.A., 1993. An analysis of the relations of basic and applied science. Ecological Psychology, 5, 315–352] argued that available distinctions between basic and applied science were inadequate for capturing the pertinent comparisons. Their multidimensional scheme extended Brunswik's [Brunswik, E., 1956. Perception and the representative design of psychological experiments. Berkeley: University of California Press] notions of ecological validity and representativeness. It included ‘outward-looking’ dimensions according to which one can judge methods and settings in terms of their relevance to human experience, several ‘inward-looking’ dimensions referring to judgements of the relevance of research designs and hypotheses to theoretical matters and several ‘effectivity’ dimensions to describe research results in terms of ecological and epistemological utility. In this ...

Student anthropometric data and furniture mismatches in selected institutions in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria

Abstract: This study is to determine whether design improvement and further study is required to improve the conditions in Nigeria tertiary institutions. The supplied standard government issued furniture was measured and anthropometrics measurements data were collected from 720 students of three randomly selected tertiary institutions in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria, covering the age group of between 17 and 27 years. The data collected indicates a substantial degree of mismatch between the student anthropometric dimensions and the furniture they used. The chair is either too high or too deep for the students. The data also reveals that the desk is too high for most of the students. The variability between gender and age has profound impact on the mismatch level. The result is of great concern which could affect students in other institutions throughout Nigeria. Further investigations are suggested in order to provide better understanding of the problem and improve it.

Synthesising the roles of torque and sensation in pinch force: a framework

Abstract: Although studies show that torque and sensation are important factors to consider in grip force, there appears to be few frameworks that focus on their roles in pinch force. This study proposes a framework that potentially explains the roles of torque and sensation in pinch force. A review was done on these factors followed by a literature synthesis which categorised them into sub-factors. The sub-factors were combined to output a framework that explains the mechanisms of their interactions. This framework enriches the knowledge on pinch force levels for reduced injury risks by identifying preliminary factors that may influence pinch force. It can potentially be used to improve the effectiveness of manufacturing tasks. Although further research on it is required, it still provides researchers with more factors to consider for studies on occupational risks and injuries. With this framework, researchers can potentially improve predictions on functional outcomes in precision manufacturing tasks.

Why person models are important for human factors science

Abstract: Human factors science has always been concerned with explaining and preventing human error and accidents. In the past 100 years, the field has shifted focus from a person approach to a system approach. In this opinion article, I provide five reasons why this shift is not opportune, and why person models are important for human factors science. I argue that (1) system models lack causal specificity; (2) as technology becomes more reliable, the proportion of accidents caused by human error increases; (3) technological development leads to new forms of human error; (4) scientific advances point to stable individual characteristics as predictors of human error and safety; and (5) in complex tasks, individual differences increase with task experience. Finally, some research recommendations are provided and ethical challenges of person models are brought forward.

How the psychological theory of action identification can offer new advances for research in cognitive engineering

Abstract: We present the psychological theory of action identification as a framework for a more in-depth understanding of a human operator's cognitive activity in the scope of cognitive engineering. A comparison of theoretical models and findings shows that both frameworks are founded on a similar theory of cognitive control based on an ontological viewpoint of means–ends relationships with the proposal that an individual mentally ‘navigates’ or ‘moves’ through a hierarchical arrangement of these relationships. However, whilst cognitive engineering begins the analysis from a viewpoint on affordances coming from the external work domain, the action identification theory starts from a viewpoint on action identities internally attributed to actions by individuals. We show that the conceptual articulation of these two approaches leads to confirming qualitative findings on an agent's cognitive activity and to proposing general cognitive principles that would explain a single agent's mental navigation through the abstra...

The use of questionnaires in colour research in real-life settings: in search of validity and methodological pitfalls

Abstract: This research discusses the validity of applying questionnaires in colour research in real-life settings. In the literature conclusions concerning colour influences on human performance and well-being are often conflicting. This can be caused by the artificial setting of the test process. Applying questionnaires could also be a cause. To avoid the disadvantages of an artificial setting, a colour research process was organised in a real-life setting. In order to get a better understanding of the validity and possible pitfalls in using questionnaires, the responses to the questionnaires were analysed and compared with findings from observations of respondents’ behaviour and additional interviews with the respondents. Discrepancies were found indicating weaknesses of applying questionnaires in colour research. The findings suggest that questionnaires alone are not a fully appropriate tool to establish the colour influences.

Commentary on the paper by Heimrich Kanis entitled: ‘Reliability and validity of findings in ergonomics research’

Abstract: Kanis provides an interesting but prescriptive view on reliability and validity in human factors and ergonomics (HFE) research. For HFE recommendations to be implemented the research must communicate with and convince the target audience. To achieve this, researchers will continue to use a selection of analytical tools across both disciplines (and industrial sectors) and the methodological continuum. A major step forward in improving the quality (including reliability and validity) of evaluation research in HFE is the development and validation of mixed methods critical appraisal tools. Sponsors, funders and editors should encourage researchers and reviewers to take a more systematic approach to raise the quality of HFE research in practice and publication.

Characterising the effect of interoperability on healthcare work: a novel framework

Abstract: Successful design and implementation of interoperable health IT requires an understanding of specific technological capabilities of systems, as well as how these systems impact clinical workflow. Several existing frameworks classify interoperability levels, but none focus on the impact on clinical work, particularly at the task level. A synthesis of existing interoperability frameworks from select interoperability frameworks in the literature about both medical and non-medical systems is presented and a new, 7-level framework in order to characterise the effect of varying levels of interoperability on the users’ work based upon qualitative data collected in a field study of the use of health information exchange in 12 ambulatory practices is proposed. The lowest level describes paper-based tasks completed with no access to electronic information from other institutions; the highest level describes interoperable systems in which data elements from other institutions are integrated into the patient's record...

Examining external validity issues in research with human operation of unmanned vehicles

Abstract: Research has studied human operation of unmanned vehicles (UVs) in the laboratory and the field, but differences between these settings raise questions about the generalisability of findings. This article discusses how these differences can alter relationships of interest and establishes a framework for establishing causal inference. The goals of this article are to: (a) argue that findings can be externally valid, where differences may be as much the result of specifics from the field as any lack of generalisability of laboratory; (b) illustrate how external validity arguments can be presented in UV research; (c) support the idea that hypotheses about the real-world can be tested in laboratory domains; (d) challenge the notion that findings from the field will always generalise to future applications; and (e) present a position where field and laboratory research can be integrated to develop a stronger theoretical framework for understanding how human operators control unmanned systems.

Perceptual control and feedback control in the analysis of complex tasks

Abstract: Despite its extensive and successful use in the human factors specialist's work, there remain challenges for the development of task analysis. One such challenge is posed by the need to capture the features of the dynamic, complex tasks that take place in modern socio-technical systems. In this paper, we discuss the theoretical and practical implications of using perceptual control theory (PCT) as a theoretical grounding for task analysis. In particular, we describe the ability of PCT to combine the notion of perceptual control (which is similar to the assumptions underlying ecological design) with that of feedback control (which is fundamental to some traditional task analysis approaches). We describe some of the current PCT-based task analysis methods before introducing a new method that aims to integrate PCT concepts into hierarchical task analysis. Finally, we demonstrate how this method might be applied to a real-world dynamic control task.