Showing papers on "Subsistence agriculture published in 2009"

The contribution of subsistence farming to food security in South Africa

Abstract: Poor households access their food from the market, subsistence production and transfers from public programmes or other households. In the past rural households produced most of their own food, but recent studies have shown an increase in dependence on market purchases by both urban and rural households, in some cases reaching 90% of the food supplies. Food expenditures can account for as much as 60–80% of total household income for low-income households in some parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Subsistence/smallholder agriculture can play an important role in reducing the vulnerability of rural and urban food-insecure households, improving livelihoods, and helping to mitigate high food price inflation. There is a need to significantly increase the productivity of subsistence/smallholder agriculture and ensure long-term food security. This can be achieved by encouraging farmers to pursue sustainable intensification of production through the use of improved inputs. This will require a dramatic increase...

Should subsistence agriculture be supported as a strategy to address rural food insecurity

Abstract: At first glance South Africa's black farming sector appears to contribute rather minimally to overall agricultural output in South Africa. However, despite the complexity involved in this sector and the often marginal conditions in which agriculture is practised it appears to be important to a large number of black households. Furthermore, the significance they attach to subsistence agriculture as means of supplementing household food supplies seems to heavily outweigh other reasons for engaging in agriculture. Some South African researchers have indicated the contribution subsistence production makes to household food security, despite the prevalent complexities and the low input nature of this production. Statistics South Africa's Labour Force Survey data from 2001 to 2007 and a case study of subsistence farming in Limpopo Province are used to support the argument that, despite the complexity of this sector, the more than 4 million subsistence farmers, need and merit greater support. Such suppo...

Gender Issues in Agriculture and Rural Development in Nigeria: The Role of Women

Abstract: Most farmers in Nigeria operate at the subsistence, smallholder level in an extensive agricultural system; hence in their hands lies the country's food security and agricultural development. Particularly striking, however, is the fact that rural women, more than their male counterparts, take the lead in agricultural activities, making up to 60-80 percent of labour force. It is ironical that their contributions to agriculture and rural development are seldom noticed. Furthermore, they have either no or minimal part in the decision-making process regarding agricultural development. Gender inequality is therefore dominant in the sector and this constitutes a bottleneck to development, calling for a review of government policies on agriculture to all the elements that place rural women farmers at a disadvantage. The women-in-agriculture programme in Nigeria, which was established in cognizance of this and the shortcoming in extension services for women farmers, has been a huge success. Women's groups, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and civil societies have empowered and given rural women farmers a voice and effectively championed their cause. Women farmers now have better access to farm inputs and credits although many barriers remain and would have to be addressed to further enhance their role. Rural women farmers deserve better recognition and greater appreciation of their tangible contributions to agriculture and rural development and food security. Other aspects of gender issues in Nigerian agriculture are discussed.

Bees and their role in forest livelihoods: a guide to the services provided by bees and the sustainable harvesting, processing and marketing of their products.

Abstract: This volume provides basic information about managing wild bees and on the use of their products. It identifies and describes major bee species and their importance for nature conservation and for sustaining livelihoods of rural people. Bee products are considered at both subsistence and commercial level, and particular attention is given to the potential for further development of managing wild been species in developing countries. The role of bees for pollination of crops and the impact of managing bees on forestry and farming are presented. Wild-bee keeping techniques, honey production and marketing, and the international trade in been products are described with further references and sources of additional information given. Using this publication, readers will better understand the complexities and opportunities for developing apiculture by rural livelihoods. Also published in French.

Biogas as a sustainable energy source in Nepal: Present status and future challenges

Abstract: Cattle manure, human excreta and agriculture residues are used in anaerobic bioreactors in many parts of the world to produce methane gas, which is used for the purpose of cooking and lighting. Since such waste materials are readily available in farms, rural people of many developing countries have been benefited from this technology. Besides, this technology is cheaper and simpler, thus, gaining popularity throughout the world. Nepal is one of the least developed countries with the vast majority of people involved in subsistence agriculture. The use of biogas technology in Nepal has benefited the country in improving health, environment, economy and energy conservation. In this paper, we present the state of the biogas sector in Nepal.

Ingraining Product-Relevant Social Good into Business Processes in Subsistence Marketplaces: The Sustainable Market Orientation

Abstract: This article uses insights gained from the unique context of subsistence marketplaces, or the base of the pyramid, to put forth a sustainable market orientation for businesses. Using qualitative research and case studies of businesses, ingraining social good in a product-relevant sense is argued to be central and essential for businesses in subsistence contexts to be successful. This analysis is unique in taking a bottom-up in orientation and begins at the microlevel, drawing on psychological and sociological aspects of subsistence marketplaces to derive macrolevel implications.

Coupling agent-based models of subsistence farming with individual-based forest models and dynamic models of water distribution

Abstract: Subsistence farming communities are dependent on the landscape to provide the resource base upon which their societies can be built. A key component of this is the role of climate and the feedback between rainfall, crop growth, land clearance and their coupling to the hydrological cycle. Temporal fluctuations in rainfall alter the spatial distribution of water availability, which in turn is mediated by soil-type, slope and landcover. This pattern ultimately determines the locations within the landscape that can support agriculture and controls sustainability of farming practices. The representation of such a system requires us to couple together the dynamics of human and ecological systems and landscape change, each of which constitutes a significant modelling challenge on its own. Here we present a proto-type coupled modelling system to simulate land-use change by bringing together three simple process models: (a) an agent-based model of subsistence farming; (b) an individual-based model of forest dynamics; and (c) a spatially explicit hydrological model which predicts distributed soil moisture and basin scale water fluxes. Using this modelling system we investigate how demographic changes influence deforestation and assess its impact on forest ecology, stream hydrology and changes in water availability.

Local Knowledge, Subsistence Harvests, and Social–Ecological Complexity in James Bay

Abstract: Ecosystems are complex and difficult to predict and control. Western science-based societies have tended to simplify ecosystems to manage them. Some indigenous and other rural groups who interact closely with a given resource system seem to have developed practices that are adapted to live with complexity. This paper examines how indigenous Cree hunters in James Bay, subarctic Canada, understand and deal with ecological complexity and dynamics, and how their understanding of uncertainty and variability shape subsistence activities. The focus is the Canada goose (Branta canadensis) hunt which is adaptive to shifts and changes in local and regional conditions. Ecological understandings of Cree hunters allow them to account for and deal with a very large number of variables at multiples scales. The Cree deal with these variables qualitatively, an approach consistent with some scientific ways of dealing with complexity, such as adaptive management and fuzzy logic.

The Mekong Biophysical Environment of an International River Basin

Abstract: The Mekong is the most controversial river in Southeast Asia, and increasingly the focus of international attention. It flows through 6 counties, China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam. The 4 downstream countries have formed the Mekong River Commission to promote sustainable development of the river and many of their people depend on it for their subsistence. It is possibly the largest freshwater fishery in the world, and the Mekong waters support rice agriculture in the delta in Viet Nam (which produces about 40 per cent of that country's food) as well as in Cambodia, Laos and Thailand. China is now building the first large mainstream dam on the river, and has proposals for several more. These dams are likely to affect the downstream countries. Several of the downstream countries also have plans for large scale hydropower and irrigation development which could also impact the river. This book will provide a solid overview of the biophysical environment of the Mekong together with a discussion of the possible impacts, biophysical, economic and social, of some possible development scenarios. It is intended to provide a technical basis which can inform the growing political and conservation debate about the future of the Mekong River, and those who depend on it. It is aimed at river ecologists, geographers, environmentalists and development specialists both in the basin and (especially) outside for whom access to this material is most difficult. This book will be the first comprehensive treatment of the Mekong system. This title presents the first comprehensive overview of all aspects of the Mekong River system. It deals with a regionally critical ecosystem and one under threat. The Mekong supports the world's largest freshwater fishery and provides water underpinning a major regional rice paddy system. This work presents the authoritative findings of the Mekong River Commission's research for a wider audience for the first time outside of limited distribution reports.

Canadian Inuit subsistence and ecological instability— if the climate changes, must the Inuit?

Abstract: Considerable attention has been devoted to the possible effects of global climate change on the environment of the circumpolar world.With regard to the Inuit, the aboriginal culture of Arctic Canada, research interest has focused principally on the vulnerability of the hunting and harvesting component of the traditional food system, otherwise frequently referred to as the subsistence system, if wild terrestrial and marine resources become less available. Although also concerned with the traditional Inuit food economy, this paper concentrates on the customary institutional mechanisms by which the Inuit distribute and share the products obtained from hunting. After analysing this social economy, a review of the data on recent climate-related range changes of a number of Arctic animal populations is carried out, in terms of how projected environmental changes may affect this other aspect of Inuit subsistence. After tentatively concluding that some species substitution and/or replacement will occur, the final aspect of the paper considers the potential for the possible exclusion of these “replacements” as a result of the political aspect of climate change.

Traditional homegardens and rural livelihoods in Nhema, Zimbabwe: a sustainable agroforestry system

Abstract: This paper analyzes data on the contribution of homegardens to the livelihoods of rural people in Nhema communal area, Zimbabwe. Variables analyzed were plant use and diversity, homegarden input, benefit, and income generation. Data were collected through plant inventories, direct observations, semi-structured and open-ended questionnaires, and interviews. A total of 69 plant species were identified as being important to local livelihoods, either for domestic use or for trading in the local market. Tubers, vegetables, and fruit trees were the most important plant use categories. Food production was found to be the primary function of homegardens, almost all of them being subsistence production systems. Homegardens were an important occupation for rural people, with an average labor investment of 48 h per family per month. Although homegarden production provides a small source of income, it is particularly important for poor households to overcome adversity and meet basic needs. The results of this study d...

Understanding the Relationship between Economic Growth, Employment and Poverty Reduction *

Abstract: Whether they are subsistence farmers, salaried workers, or self-employed entrepreneurs, poor people derive most of their income from work. This basic fact means that the level of employment, the quality of jobs, and the access which the poor have to decent earnings opportunities will be crucial determinants of poverty reduction. The intuition that jobs matter for development has not been lost on the governments of low income countries and the vast majority of national development strategies look to employment generation as a major channel for poverty reduction.

Can tropical farmers reconcile subsistence needs with forest conservation

Abstract: If tropical farmers cannot be provided with sustainable land-use systems, which address their subsistence needs and keep them gainfully employed, tropical forests will continue to disappear. We looked at the ability of economic land-use diversification – with reforestation of tropical “wastelands” as a key activity – to halt deforestation at the farm level. Our ecological–economic concept, based on land-use data from the buffer area of the Podocarpus National Park in southern Ecuador, shows that stopping deforestation after 10 years is possible without violating subsistence demands. Tropical, farm-level diversification may not only reduce total deforestation by 45%, but also increase farmers' profits by 65%, because the formerly unproductive wastelands have been returned to productive land use. We therefore conclude that a “win–win” scenario is possible: the subsistence needs of people can be reconciled with conservation objectives. However, inexpensive microcredits (at interest rates below 6%) and experi...

From famine to food crisis. What history can teach us about local and global subsistence crises

Abstract: The range of famine prone regions in the world has been shrinking for centuries; it’s currently mainly limited to sub-Sahara Africa. Yet the impact of endemic hunger has not declined and the early 21st century seems to be faced with a new threat: global subsistence crises. In this essay I question the concepts of famine and food crisis. I will formulate some suggestions to understand these seemingly unrelated processes in a more integrated way. The article successively debates historical famine research, Europe’s ‘grand escape’ from hunger, past and contemporary ‘depeasantisation’, and the state of 21st century food systems. Only more integrated models of interpretation can supersede the dualistic histories of food and famine that have been dominating developmentalist stories for so long.

Smallholder Livelihoods, Wealth and Deforestation in the Eastern Amazon

Abstract: In this paper, I examine patterns of wealth accumulation and their influence on deforestation among smallholders at Uruara and Redencao, in the state of Para in the Brazilian Eastern Amazon. I argue that the development of the smallholder economy has not been a linear process, and the diversity of smallholder farming systems and their patterns of wealth accumulation have varied implications for the rate and magnitude of deforestation. However, whilst there are differential impacts of farming practices on deforestation—cattle ranching has a greater impact than cash cropping or subsistence agriculture—the stronger correlate of deforestation is the wealth of the farmers. Wealthier farmers not only tend to deforest more in absolute terms, but also show a slightly greater propensity to deforest whatever their production system. Though cattle production is a key driver of wealth accumulation and thus deforestation, a significant number of smallholders adopt diversified production systems. The main factors explaining the relationship between the farming systems and deforestation were years of residence on the lot, distance of the lot to main market and the amount of day labor hired—and not variables describing household structure.

‘Adaptive Social Protection’: Synergies for Poverty Reduction

Abstract: Global processes and crises are changing and deepening the risks already faced by poor and vulnerable people in rural areas, particularly those involved in agriculture and other ecosystemdependent livelihoods. Reliance on subsistence agriculture means the impact of stresses and shocks (such as droughts or floods) are felt keenly by rural poor people, who depend directly on food system outcomes for their survival. This has profound implications for the security of their livelihoods and for their welfare. However, such stresses and shocks will not necessarily lead to negative impacts, as risks and uncertainties, often associated with seasonality, are embedded in the practice of agriculture and there is considerable experience of coping and risk management strategies among people working in this sector. With climate change, the magnitude and frequency of stresses and shocks is changing and approaches such as social protection, disaster risk reduction (DRR) and climate change adaptation will be needed to bolster local resilience and supplement people’s experience.

Land-Use Change and Livestock Production Challenges in an Integrated System: The Masai-Mara Ecosystem, Kenya

Abstract: Participatory rural appraisal techniques and a survey of 100 households were used to evaluate livestock production, and pastoral development of the Maasai in Mara. It was observed that patterns of land-use have principally changed from nomadic pastoralism to sedentary pastoralism, agropastoralism, and, in some cases, pure cultivation. These trends have adversely affected livestock production and the productive capacity of the Mara ecosystem. Diminishing grazing area occasioned by expanding cropping patterns has negatively impacted on vegetation resources and the biodiversity of the ecosystem. It has also increased the intensity of conflict over diminishing land resources. Because the production system is largely subsistence with a strong livestock base, it is further undermined by, among other factors, animal diseases, water scarcity, land individualisation, poor marketing infrastructure, and livestock/wildlife conflicts. Based on the findings of the present study, development approaches need to emphasise integrated livestock and wildlife utilisation, land tenure reforms that embody livestock mobility as a key strategy of optimising the use of transient forage resources, disease control, and development of livestock marketing.

Cereals, fruits and nuts in the Scottish Neolithic.

Abstract: The importance of wild and domestic plants in the British Neolithic economies has been much disputed, but the contribution of Scottish archaeobotanical evidence has previously been understated. This paper assesses the use of plants in the Scottish Neolithic economy using the archaeobotanical evidence from 75 sites. It is argued that plant exploitation was geographically and socially diverse in Neolithic Scotland; while domesticated plants became the mainstay of the economy for some social groups, wild plant exploitation remained an important part of the subsistence strategies for other groups. In this context, geographic, social and temporal differences in the importance of wheat and barley are also discussed.

Capitalism and Its Discontents: Back-to-the-Lander and Freegan Foodways in Rural Oregon

Abstract: During an assessment of food needs and habits in rural Western Oregon, back-to-the-landers and freegans emerged as two groups that resist the global industrial food system by tapping into pre-capitalist subsistence patterns. Subsistence agriculture provides the inspiration for back-to-the-landers while freegans are akin to modern day foragers, living off the waste of others and on what they can gather in the wild. In this article, I describe the foodways of these two groups and suggest ways in which they might help articulate a post-capitalist food economy, using the work of J. K. Gibson-Graham and the Community Economies Collective. 1

Resource Resilience, Human Niche Construction, and the Long-Term Sustainability of Pre-Columbian Subsistence Economies in the Mississippi River Valley Corridor

Abstract: In small-scale human societies, a variety of factors contribute to the sustainability of subsistence economies, including premeditated conservation measures, low human population levels and predation pressure, and limited technological capacity to adversely impact environments. Here I suggest that it is worthwhile to look beyond simple characterizations of small-scale societies as being “low impact” in terms of their limited population, predation, and technology. Instead, we should look more closely both at the degree to which primary prey species are resilient to human predation and at the extent to which the niche construction efforts of small-scale human societies may modify vegetation communities in ways that result in their capture of a larger percentage of an ecosystem's total biotic energy. The small-scale Pre-Columbian societies occupying the Mississippi River Valley provide a case study. Throughout the Middle and Late Holocene, indigenous groups in this major north-south environmental co...

Farmers’ Subjective Valuation of Subsistence Crops: The Case of Traditional Maize in Mexico

Abstract: Shadow prices guide farmers' resource allocations, but for subsistence farmers growing traditional crops, shadow prices may bear little relationship with market prices. We econometrically estimate shadow prices of maize using data from a nationally representative survey of rural households in Mexico. Shadow prices are significantly higher than the market price for traditional but not improved maize varieties. They are particularly high in the indigenous areas of southern and southeastern Mexico, indicating large de facto incentives to maintain traditional maize there.