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Co-Planar Stereotaxic Atlas of the Human Brain—3-Dimensional Proportional System: An Approach to Cerebral Imaging, J. Talairach, P. Tournoux. Georg Thieme Verlag, New York (1988), 122 pp., 130 figs. DM 268

Thirty years of brain imaging research has converged to define the brain’s default network—a novel and only recently appreciated brain system that participates in internal modes of cognition Here we synthesize past observations to provide strong evidence that the default network is a specific, anatomically defined brain system preferentially active when individuals are not focused on the external environment Analysis of connectional anatomy in the monkey supports the presence of an interconnected brain system Providing insight into function, the default network is active when individuals are engaged in internally focused tasks including autobiographical memory retrieval, envisioning the future, and conceiving the perspectives of others Probing the functional anatomy of the network in detail reveals that it is best understood as multiple interacting subsystems The medial temporal lobe subsystem provides information from prior experiences in the form of memories and associations that are the building blocks of mental simulation The medial prefrontal subsystem facilitates the flexible use of this information during the construction of self-relevant mental simulations These two subsystems converge on important nodes of integration including the posterior cingulate cortex The implications of these functional and anatomical observations are discussed in relation to possible adaptive roles of the default network for using past experiences to plan for the future, navigate social interactions, and maximize the utility of moments when we are not otherwise engaged by the external world We conclude by discussing the relevance of the default network for understanding mental disorders including autism, schizophrenia, and Alzheimer’s disease

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The Brain's Default Network Anatomy, Function, and Relevance to Disease

Functional imaging studies have shown that certain brain regions, including posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) and ventral anterior cingulate cortex (vACC), consistently show greater activity during resting states than during cognitive tasks. This finding led to the hypothesis that these regions constitute a network supporting a default mode of brain function. In this study, we investigate three questions pertaining to this hypothesis: Does such a resting-state network exist in the human brain? Is it modulated during simple sensory processing? How is it modulated during cognitive processing? To address these questions, we defined PCC and vACC regions that showed decreased activity during a cognitive (working memory) task, then examined their functional connectivity during rest. PCC was strongly coupled with vACC and several other brain regions implicated in the default mode network. Next, we examined the functional connectivity of PCC and vACC during a visual processing task and show that the resultant connectivity maps are virtually identical to those obtained during rest. Last, we defined three lateral prefrontal regions showing increased activity during the cognitive task and examined their resting-state connectivity. We report significant inverse correlations among all three lateral prefrontal regions and PCC, suggesting a mechanism for attenuation of default mode network activity during cognitive processing. This study constitutes, to our knowledge, the first resting-state connectivity analysis of the default mode and provides the most compelling evidence to date for the existence of a cohesive default mode network. Our findings also provide insight into how this network is modulated by task demands and what functions it might subserve.

/pdf/functional-connectivity-in-the-resting-brain-a-network-33b0k3pd2e.pdf

Functional connectivity in the resting brain: A network analysis of the default mode hypothesis

Part I. Experimental Studies: 2. Experiment in psychology 3. Experiments on perceiving III Experiments on imaging 4-8. Experiments on remembering: (a) The method of description (b) The method of repeated reproduction (c) The method of picture writing (d) The method of serial reproduction (e) The method of serial reproduction picture material 9. Perceiving, recognizing, remembering 10. A theory of remembering 11. Images and their functions 12. Meaning Part II. Remembering as a Study in Social Psychology: 13. Social psychology 14. Social psychology and the matter of recall 15. Social psychology and the manner of recall 16. Conventionalism 17. The notion of a collective unconscious 18. The basis of social recall 19. A summary and some conclusions.

Remembering. A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology, Cambridge (University Press) 1964.

La memoire prospective est la memoire des intentions programmees, c’est-a-dire qu’elle nous permet de realiser une action a un moment predefini du futur, soit en reponse a l’apparition d’un indice dans l’environnement (i.e. event-based), soit a un horaire determine ou a l’issue d’un certain laps de temps (i.e. time-based). Elle est indispensable a la realisation de diverses activites de notre quotidien, les plus simples comme les plus complexes. Cette diversite est refletee par l’engagement de processus cognitifs varies lors du rappel d’intentions. Plus precisement, si dans certaines situations la recuperation d’une intention peut s’exercer sur un mode automatique, dans d’autres circonstances, l’engagement de processus controles est requis. L’objectif de cette revue est de presenter les grandes theories du fonctionnement de la memoire prospective elaborees pour rendre compte de ces mecanismes. Nous presenterons d’abord les theories explicitant la mise en place d’une surveillance attentionnelle, que ce soit pour le rappel d’intentions event-based ou time-based. Par la suite, les theories explicatives de la recuperation automatique et spontanee d’intentions seront presentees. Enfin, nous developperons deux theories integrant les deux visions precedentes. La theorie des processus multiples propose l’engagement de processus automatiques ou controles en fonction notamment de certaines caracteristiques de la tâche proposee. La theorie dynamique des processus multiples integre une adaptation a la variabilite contextuelle plus propice a retranscrire le fonctionnement de la memoire prospective au quotidien.

Les grandes théories de la mémoire prospective : vers une vision dynamique des processus cognitifs engagés lors du rappel programmé d’intentions

La maladie d’Alzheimer (MA) est parfois presentee comme une « acceleration du vieillissement normal » et le concept de MCI (pour Mild Cognitive Impairment), tout du moins le MCI amnesique, compris comme un etat intermediaire qui peut accrediter cette idee d’une continuite entre vieillissement physiologique et MA. Or les points de rupture entre les deux sont nombreux et d’ampleur importante [1, 2]. L’alteration et les modifications des processus cognitifs et les substrats cerebraux qui les sous-tendent, dans la MA et le vieillissement physiologique, peuvent, dans nombre de leurs aspects, etre opposes point par point. Ils meritent d’etre mieux connus notamment pour repondre au defi que comporte le diagnostic precoce de la maladie d’Alzheimer qui implique de bien connaitre la physiologie du vieillissement cerebral normal. Neuropsychologie et neuro-imagerie sont les outils indispensables pour connaitre les remaniements cerebraux, qu’ils soient pathologiques ou physiologiques. Par le biais des correlations cognitivoanatomiques et cognitivo-fonctionnelles, ils permettent aussi de mieux comprendre les modifications de certaines fonctions cognitives, les processus qui sont en jeu et les eventuels mecanismes compensatoires tant au cours de la MA que du vieillissement physiologique.

Cognition et imagerie cérébrale : contrastes entre vieillissement normal et maladie d’Alzheimer

SUMMARY Alzheimer’s disease and human memory. F. Eustache, B. Giffard, G. Rauchs, G. Chetelat, P. Piolino, B. Desgranges, Rev Neurol (Paris) 2006; 162: 10, 929-939Memory disorders observed in Alzheimer’s disease gave rise, from the eighties, to a detailed analysis into the framework of cognitiveneuropsychology which aimed at describing the deficits of very specific processes. Beyond their clinical interest, these studies contrib-uted to the modelisation of human memory thanks to the characterization of different memory systems and their relationships. The firstpart of this paper gives an overview of the memory deficits in Alzheimer’s disease and insists on particular cognitive phenomen a. Hence,several examples are developed in the domains of semantic memory (such as hyperpriming and hypopriming effects) and autobiograph-ical memory. Recent results highlight the existence of severe autobiographical amnesia observed in all neurodegenerative diseases,though with contrasting profiles: Ribot’s gradient in Alzheimer’s disease (showing that remote memories are better preserved th an recentones), reverse gradient in semantic dementia and no clear gradient in the frontal variant of frontotemporal dementia. The second partof this article presents advances in cognitive neuroscience searching to disclose the cerebral substrates of these cognitive deficits inAlzheimer’s disease. The studies using functional imaging techniques are the most informative regarding this problematic. While showingthe dysfunctions of an extended network, they emphasize the selectivity of cerebral damages that are at the root of very specif ic cognitivedysfunctions, coming close in that way to the conceptions of cognitive neuropsychology. These neuroimaging studies unravel the exist-ence of compensatory mechanisms, which until recently were clearlly missing in the literature on neurodegenerative diseases. Thesedifferent researches lead to a wide conception of human memory, not just limited to simple instrumental processes (encoding, storage,retrieval), but necessarily covering models of identity and continuity of the subject, which interact in a dynamic way with eminentlychanging memory representations.

Maladie d'Alzheimer et démences La maladie d'Alzheimer et la mémoire humaine

Nous connaissons presque tous une personne touchee par la maladie d’Alzheimer. Pourtant, cette pathologie – dont les consequences sont souvent dramatiques, tant pour le malade que pour son entourage – reste mal connue de la plupart d’entre nous. Quelles sont ses causes ? ses symptomes ? Comment la deceler, puis la suivre ? Quand le diagnostic est-il possible et souhaitable ? Quels sont les traitements disponibles ? Comment evolue-t-elle ? Est-elle ineluctable ou peut-on agir, au moins partiellement, sur sa survenue et sur sa progression ?

	Depuis quelques annees, la recherche a accompli des avancees notables, souvent porteuses d’espoirs. Synthese des connaissances les plus recentes sur l’Alzheimer, cet ouvrage permettra a chacun – et notamment aux aidants familiaux – de mieux comprendre la maladie, et d’ameliorer les conditions de vie des patients et de leurs proche

Alzheimer : fatalité ou espoir ?

relationship of Ab with memory among CN. Inferior temporal tau demonstrates the strongest relationship with memory, consistent with the hypothesis that spread of tau into neocortex (Braak Stage III) may signal impending cognitive impairment. Higher Ab is associatedwith higher tau, and among the PiB+ group, higher tau appears to be particularly deleterious to memory function. These findings are consistent with the hypothetical model that Ab may accelerate neocortical tau pathology and that tau is more proximal to memory decline.

Francis Eustache

Papers

Les grandes théories de la mémoire prospective : vers une vision dynamique des processus cognitifs engagés lors du rappel programmé d’intentions

Cognition et imagerie cérébrale : contrastes entre vieillissement normal et maladie d’Alzheimer

Maladie d'Alzheimer et démences La maladie d'Alzheimer et la mémoire humaine

Alzheimer : fatalité ou espoir ?

Intrinsic connectivity of hippocampal subfields in normal elderly and its disturbance in MCI patients