Showing papers in "Current opinion in behavioral sciences in 2016"
TL;DR: Recent findings that have used a developmental approach in the examination of mental health and early adversity converge on the idea that early adversity leads to accelerated maturation of emotion circuits in the brain and in the behaviors supported by these regions.
Abstract: The importance of early experiences for mental health across the lifespan is well recognized. In particular, there is a strong association between adverse caregiving experiences and mental illness. However, relative to studies assessing outcomes in adults, there are far fewer studies assessing the earlier emerging manifestations of caregiving adversity during development. This lack of developmental research limits an understanding of the mechanisms that link adversity with mental illness. Adoption of a developmental approach to research in this field will yield greater insights into the factors that tie adversity to poor emotion function across a lifespan. In this review, we focus on recent findings that have used a developmental approach in the examination of mental health and early adversity. These studies are notable in that, across numerous species, they converge on the idea that early adversity leads to accelerated maturation of emotion circuits in the brain and in the behaviors supported by these regions. We propose that these 'stress acceleration' effects are evidence of early system adaptation.
313 citations
TL;DR: This article found that people are more likely to follow an eating norm if it is perceived to be relevant based on social comparison and conforming to the behaviour of others is adaptive and we find it rewarding.
Abstract: Eating behaviour is strongly influenced by social context. We eat differently when we are with other people compared with when we eat alone. Our dietary choices also tend to converge with those of our close social connections. One reason for this is that conforming to the behaviour of others is adaptive and we find it rewarding. Norms of appropriate eating are set by the behaviour of other people, but also shared cultural expectations and environmental cues. We are more likely to follow an eating norm if it is perceived to be relevant based on social comparison. Relevant norms are set by similar others and those with whom we identify. If a norm is relevant then there may be matching of behaviour to the norm, but this will depend on other factors, such as how much attention is paid to the norm, how concerned we are about social acceptance and the presence of other competing norms such as personal norms and consumption stereotypes. Norm matching involves processes such as synchronisation of eating actions, consumption monitoring and altered food preferences. There is emerging evidence that social eating norms may play a role in the development and maintenance of obesity. Social eating norms constitute a novel target for interventions to encourage healthier eating.
272 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss recent empirical studies of the temporal consistency of personality over ontogeny, and models that make contrasting predictions about individual differences in the developmental trajectories of behavioral traits.
Abstract: In the last few years, investigators have documented individual differences in many different types of behavioral plasticity. Of particular interest are individual differences in the temporal plasticity of personality traits over extended (ontogenetic) periods of time, because of the relevance of these data to models of behavioral development. We discuss recent empirical studies of the temporal consistency of personality over ontogeny, and models that make contrasting predictions about individual differences in the developmental trajectories of behavioral traits. In addition, we consider recent advances in studies of relationships between personality traits and particular types of behavioral plasticity, including statistical methods which facilitate analyses of relationships between personality traits, contextual plasticity, temporal plasticity and intraindividual variability, and empirical tests of predicted relationships between personality traits and other types of behavioral plasticity (flexibility, learning rates). As the field of animal personality and behavioral plasticity moves from a largely descriptive to a predictive phase, we suggest that there is ample room for empirical tests of recent models that predict individual differences in behavioral developmental trajectories, and for the development of new formal models that make strong predictions about relationships between personality traits and specific types of behavioral plasticity.
157 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the relation between math anxiety and poor math performance and found that the relationship is related to individual (cognitive, affective/physiological, motivational) and environmental (social/contextual) factors.
Abstract: Anxiety about mathematics — highly prevalent across the globe — is associated with poor math performance. Why is math anxiety related to poor math performance and how can we reduce this link? Current behavioral and psychophysiological research reveals that the math anxiety-math performance link is related to both individual (cognitive, affective/physiological, motivational) and environmental (social/contextual) factors. Several interventions have recently been developed to alleviate the relation between math anxiety and math performance. To lower math anxiety and reduce its relation to poor math performance, future interventions may benefit from focusing on both math-anxious individuals themselves and those around them.
140 citations
TL;DR: The evidence indicates a prolonged structural maturation of grey matter and white matter tracts supporting higher cognitive functions such as cognitive control and social cognition as mentioned in this paper, which is associated with a greater strengthening and separation of brain networks.
Abstract: Adolescence starts with puberty and ends when individuals attain an independent role in society. Cognitive neuroscience research in the last two decades has improved our understanding of adolescent brain development. The evidence indicates a prolonged structural maturation of grey matter and white matter tracts supporting higher cognitive functions such as cognitive control and social cognition. These changes are associated with a greater strengthening and separation of brain networks, both in terms of structure and function, as well as improved cognitive skills. Adolescent-specific sub-cortical reactivity to emotions and rewards, contrasted with their developing self-control skills, are thought to account for their greater sensitivity to the socio-affective context. The present review examines these findings and their implications for training interventions and education.
127 citations
TL;DR: The equilibrium between the different components of the stress response that accompany chronic stress situations could be crucial to understand and prevent the long-lasting adverse metabolic effects induced by stress.
Abstract: The stress response mobilizes the body's energy stores in order to respond to a threatening situation. A striking observation is the diversity of metabolic changes that can occur in response to stress. On one hand acute intense stress is commonly associated with feeding suppression and reduced body weight gain. The activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis and the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) might partially explain the anorexigenic effects of acute stress. CRH can also stimulate the sympathetic nervous system and catecholamine release, inducing hypophagia and weight loss, through their effects on the liver and on white and brown adipose tissue. On the other hand, chronic stress can lead to dietary over-consumption (especially palatable foods), increased visceral adiposity and weight gain. These obesogenic effects of stress are mainly explained by the chronic release of glucocorticoids and neuropeptide Y. Stressful situations can activate all of these systems together, and the metabolic outcome of stress exposure is determined by a host of intrinsic and external factors. If we are to find new ways to limit the development of stress-linked cardiometabolic diseases, we need to discover why, in some circumstances, the pro-obesogenic effects of stress outweigh its anorexigenic effects. The equilibrium between the different components of the stress response that accompany chronic stress situations could be crucial to understand and prevent the long-lasting adverse metabolic effects induced by stress.
126 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a review describes recent studies that have tested the effect of contemporary food advertisements on children's eating behavior, including newly emerging data showing marketing effects on subconscious cognitive processes and studies illuminating the mechanistic underpinnings of these effects.
Abstract: Systematic research reviews have repeatedly shown that food advertising affects children's eating behavior. Given that most food advertising promotes unhealthy, palatable, and rewarding food products, it is considered to be a significant contributor to the current obesity epidemic. This review describes recent studies that have tested the effect of contemporary food advertisements on children's eating behavior, including newly emerging data showing marketing effects on subconscious cognitive processes and studies illuminating the mechanistic underpinnings of these effects. In addition, this review presents an integration of empirical findings in a new theoretical framework that increases the understanding of the effects of food advertising on eating behavior and might be used for future research in this area.
110 citations
TL;DR: The authors discuss the role of epigenetic effects in the ontogenetic emergence of aggressive and rank-related phenotypes, and summarize how these phenotypes are mediated by endocrine and nervous system activity.
Abstract: Aggression is ubiquitous among animals, and contest outcomes in many gregarious species yield societies structured by dominance hierarchies. Recent results from a variety of disciplines have laid the groundwork for an integrative view of aggression and dominance, ranging from their physiological underpinnings to their evolutionary histories. Here we use Tinbergen's four levels of behavioral analysis to summarize our current understanding of aggressive behavior and dominance relationships. First, we discuss the role of epigenetic effects in the ontogenetic emergence of aggressive and rank-related phenotypes, and summarize how these phenotypes are mediated by endocrine and nervous system activity. We briefly review recent work on the functions of aggression and dominance hierarchies in animal societies, and then consider their phylogenetic history. Finally, we review methodological encumbrances to the study of dominance, and consider the unique evolution of aggression and dominance relationships in humans.
100 citations
TL;DR: A framework for active sensing is presented that forms a closed loop between an ideal observer, that extracts task-relevant information from a sequence of observations, and an ideal planner which specifies the actions that lead to the most informative observations.
Abstract: A key component of interacting with the world is how to direct ones' sensors so as to extract task-relevant information - a process referred to as active sensing. In this review, we present a framework for active sensing that forms a closed loop between an ideal observer, that extracts task-relevant information from a sequence of observations, and an ideal planner which specifies the actions that lead to the most informative observations. We discuss active sensing as an approximation to exploration in the wider framework of reinforcement learning, and conversely, discuss several sensory, perceptual, and motor processes as approximations to active sensing. Based on this framework, we introduce a taxonomy of sensing strategies, identify hallmarks of active sensing, and discuss recent advances in formalizing and quantifying active sensing.
98 citations
TL;DR: It is suggested that the contingent negative variation reflects a common core preparatory process related to brain system optimization, and other cognitive processes that depend on the specific timing task employed.
Abstract: When participants time intervals ranging from several hundred milliseconds to several seconds a negative polarity waveform, known as the contingent negative variation (CNV), manifests in the ongoing electroencephalogram (EEG). The perceptual and cognitive functions underlying this component are subject to ongoing debate. Moreover, recent evidence suggests that the link between the CNV and behavioral performance is non-linear and changes depending on the cognitive context. We suggest that the CNV reflects a common core preparatory process related to brain system optimization, and other cognitive processes that depend on the specific timing task employed.
91 citations
TL;DR: The regulation of both negative and positive emotions, the role of other people in guiding the authors' emotional responses, and the potential applications of this work to education are discussed.
Abstract: Emotion regulation is a critical life skill that can facilitate learning and improve educational outcomes. Developmental studies find that the ability to regulate emotion improves with age. In neuroimaging studies, emotion regulation abilities are associated with recruitment of a set of prefrontal brain regions involved in cognitive control and executive functioning that mature late in development. In this review we discuss the regulation of both negative and positive emotions, the role of other people in guiding our emotional responses, and the potential applications of this work to education.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present evidence from behavior and neuroimaging that highlights numerical symbol knowledge as a key mediator between informal and formal mathematical competencies, and argue that future research should aim to elucidate cognitive and neuronal mechanisms underpinning the acquisition of symbolic knowledge.
Abstract: Numerical skills measured prior to school entry are predictive of mathematics achievement longitudinally. It is therefore important that young children start school with strong mathematical foundations. Here we review evidence from behavior and neuroimaging that highlights numerical symbol knowledge as a key mediator between informal and formal mathematical competencies. We argue that future research should aim to elucidate cognitive and neuronal mechanisms underpinning the acquisition of symbolic knowledge. Furthermore, multiple aspects of numerical symbol knowledge, such as identification, cardinality, and ordinality, should be emphasized in preschool childcare environments.
TL;DR: This work outlines a theoretical framework aiming at characterizing the origin and structure of choice variability in uncertain environments, and indicates how to modify existing computational models and behavioral paradigms to dissociate computational imprecisions from suboptimal biases in inference.
Abstract: Making decisions under uncertainty, from perceptual judgments to reward-guided choices, requires combining multiple pieces of decision-relevant information — a cognitive process modeled as statistical inference. In such conditions, human and animal decisions exhibit a large suboptimal variability whose origin and structure remains poorly understood. This variability is usually hypothesized as noise at the periphery of inferential processes, namely sensory noise in perceptual tasks and stochastic exploration in reward-guided learning, or as suboptimal biases in inference per se. Here we outline a theoretical framework aiming at characterizing the origin and structure of choice variability in uncertain environments, with an emphasis on the computational imprecision of inferential processes usually overlooked in the literature. We indicate how to modify existing computational models and behavioral paradigms to dissociate computational imprecisions from suboptimal biases in inference. Computational imprecisions have critical consequences for understanding the notion of optimality in decision-making.
TL;DR: Recent findings which elucidate the neural computations that occur within motor regions, and in particular the supplementary motor area, in order to support precisely timed actions are reviewed.
Abstract: Several lines of evidence suggest that motoric brain structures may form the core amodal component of a neural network supporting a wide range of timed behaviours. Here, we review recent findings which elucidate the neural computations that occur within motor regions, and in particular the supplementary motor area, in order to support precisely timed actions. Although motor activity may help us represent time, it is also clear that action both enriches and complicates the interpretation of sensory inputs. Hence, in the second half of this review, we consider the latest findings regarding the perceptual distortions that our actions can impose upon our subjective perception of time.
TL;DR: Evidence from studies in rodents using dose levels relevant to human exposure of BPA alters behavior and eliminates or in some cases reverses sexually dimorphic behaviors observed in unexposed animals is reviewed.
Abstract: Of the approximately 85,000 chemicals in use, 1000 have been identified as having the ability to disrupt normal endocrine function. Exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) during critical period in brain differentiation (prenatal and neonatal life) via the mother can alter the course of the development of sexually dimorphic behaviors. Bisphenol A (BPA) is a very high volume chemical used in plastic, resins and other products, and virtually everyone examined has detectable BPA. BPA has estrogenic activity and is one of the most studied EDCs. We review evidence from studies in rodents using dose levels relevant to human exposure. BPA alters behavior and eliminates or in some cases reverses sexually dimorphic behaviors observed in unexposed animals.
TL;DR: One commonly used and largely adaptive strategy is cognitive reappraisal, which involves changing the way we are thinking about a situation in order to change how we feel as mentioned in this paper, which is generally more adaptive than other strategies, such as expressive suppression (in Western cultures) and under certain circumstances, distraction.
Abstract: One critical developmental milestone is the ability to employ strategies that will regulate unruly emotions [ 1 ]. In childhood, and adulthood, emotions do not always need to be controlled, but in situations where regulating them is adaptive, such as educational settings, there are many strategies available for use. One commonly used and largely adaptive strategy is cognitive reappraisal, which involves changing the way we are thinking about a situation in order to change how we feel. Research indicates that this strategy is generally more adaptive than other strategies, such as expressive suppression (in Western cultures) and under certain circumstances, distraction. However, there are some situations in which using reappraisal might not be the best choice, including using reappraisal to regulate emotions which are strong, immediate, perceptually-based, or emotions that are the result of situations that are still controllable. Future work should continue to explore the contextual conditions that inform when reappraisal is effective and adaptive, and define the best alternate strategies when reappraisal cannot be effective and adaptive.
TL;DR: This review characterize resilience in children with reading disorders (RD) by paralleling other resilience research and seeking to uncover protective factors in the hopes that they can be targeted in education and interventions to improve cognitive functioning, socio-emotional wellbeing, and academic success of children with RD.
Abstract: In recent times, research on resilience in children facing adversities has proliferated. In this review, the authors characterize resilience in children with reading disorders (RD). To organize our discussion and categorize the specific outcomes such children demonstrate, we adopt the terms cognitive resilience and socio-emotional resilience. By paralleling other resilience research, we seek to uncover protective factors in the hopes that they can be targeted in education and interventions to improve cognitive functioning, socio-emotional wellbeing, and academic success of children with RD. We conclude by considering current limitations and addressing the need for future resilience research in this specific population of children.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss recent models of post-decisional evidence accumulation and explore whether, and how, biases in confidence could arise, and explore how to improve or degrade confidence with time.
Abstract: Most models of decision-making suggest that confidence, the ‘feeling of knowing’ that accompanies our choices, is constructed as the decision unfolds. However, more recent studies have noted that processes occurring after we commit to a particular choice also affect this subjective belief. This leads to the following question: when are we better judges of ourselves? If, after a decision, evidence continues to accumulate in an unbiased manner, then our confidence judgements should improve. Conversely, if post-decisional information processing is biased, our sense of confidence could be distorted, and so our confidence judgements should degrade with time. We briefly discuss recently proposed models of post-decisional evidence accumulation, and explore whether, and how, biases in confidence could arise.
TL;DR: MRI studies that examine brain differences associated with risk for dyslexia in children before reading instruction are summarized and studies that take a modular perspective rather than a network approach are focused on in order to link these findings with current etiological theories of dyslexIA.
Abstract: The neurobiological substrates that cause people with dyslexia to experience difficulty in acquiring accurate and fluent reading skills are still largely unknown. Although structural and functional brain anomalies associated with dyslexia have been reported in adults and school-age children, these anomalies may represent differences in reading experience rather than the etiology of dyslexia. Conducting MRI studies of pre-readers at risk for dyslexia is one approach that enables us to identify brain alterations that exist before differences in reading experience emerge. The current review summarizes MRI studies that examine brain differences associated with risk for dyslexia in children before reading instruction and meta-analyzes these studies. In order to link these findings with current etiological theories of dyslexia, we focus on studies that take a modular perspective rather than a network approach. Although some of the observed differences in pre-readers at risk for dyslexia may still be shaped by language experiences during the first years of life, such studies underscore the existence of reading-related brain anomalies prior to reading onset and could eventually lead to earlier and more precise diagnosis and treatment of dyslexia.
TL;DR: Understanding hormonal influences on gender development enhances knowledge of psychological development generally, and has important implications for basic and applied questions, including sex differences in psychopathology, women's underrepresentation in science and math, and clinical care of individuals with variations in gender expression.
Abstract: Many important psychological characteristics show sex differences, and are influenced by sex hormones at different developmental periods. We focus on the role of sex hormones in early development, particularly the differential effects of prenatal androgens on aspects of gender development. Increasing evidence confirms that prenatal androgens have facilitative effects on male-typed activity interests and engagement (including child toy preferences and adult careers), and spatial abilities, but relatively minimal effects on gender identity. Recent emphasis has been directed to the psychological mechanisms underlying these effects (including sex differences in propulsive movement, and androgen effects on interest in people versus things), and neural substrates of androgen effects (including regional brain volumes, and neural responses to mental rotation, sexually arousing stimuli, emotion, and reward). Ongoing and planned work is focused on understanding the ways in which hormones act jointly with the social environment across time to produce varying trajectories of gender development, and clarifying mechanisms by which androgens affect behaviors. Such work will be facilitated by applying lessons from other species, and by expanding methodology. Understanding hormonal influences on gender development enhances knowledge of psychological development generally, and has important implications for basic and applied questions, including sex differences in psychopathology, women's underrepresentation in science and math, and clinical care of individuals with variations in gender expression.
TL;DR: New findings are focused on which suggest that group living can enhance host resistance to pathogen infection, and reduce the fitness impacts of infection.
Abstract: Group living enhances the costs of pathogen infection by increasing the exposure of social individuals to infectious organisms. This hypothesis is well-supported, particularly for pathogens transmitted by close contact. However, recent and compelling research suggests that it is time to revisit this idea. Here, we focus on new findings which suggest that group living can: (i) enhance host resistance to pathogen infection, and (ii) reduce the fitness impacts of infection. This research raises the exciting possibility that there may be common anti-parasite benefits of group living, in addition to well-known pathogen costs.
TL;DR: It is predicted that exposure to trauma will have a distinct neurobiological impact from exposure to a lack of cognitive stimulation and that these distinct exposures will benefit from different interventions.
Abstract: Poverty and exposure to adversity have been linked with decreased educational success. Various environmental and neurobiological pathways have been proposed for these associations, however, existing models have several clear drawbacks. Here we outline existing models, and propose an alternate model linking exposure to adverse experiences in childhood to education success. Specifically, we propose that measured dimensions of experience (e.g., decreased cognitive enrichment or increased exposure to violence), instead of named exposures (e.g., poverty) impact neurobiology through neurodevelopmental processes of neuroplasticity. Our model results in testable hypotheses and clear intervention strategies. We predict that exposure to trauma will have a distinct neurobiological impact from exposure to a lack of cognitive stimulation and that these distinct exposures will benefit from different interventions. Specificity in this arena is thus likely to better support educational achievement for disadvantaged children.
TL;DR: The role of individual working memory components in mathematical cognition depends not only on problem complexity but also on individual differences in mathematical abilities as mentioned in this paper, and the contributions of individual WM components change dynamically over development with visuospatial processes playing an increasingly important role in learning and enhancing mathematical proficiency.
Abstract: Working memory (WM) plays an essential role in children's mathematical learning. WM influences both the early foundational phases of number knowledge acquisition and subsequent maturation of problem solving skills. The role of individual WM components in mathematical cognition depends not only on problem complexity but also on individual differences in mathematical abilities. Furthermore, the contributions of individual WM components change dynamically over development with visuospatial processes playing an increasingly important role in learning and enhancing mathematical proficiency. Convergent findings from neuroimaging studies are now providing fundamental insights into the link between WM and mathematical cognition, and the mechanisms by which poor WM contributes to learning disabilities. Evidence to date suggests that visuospatial WM is a specific source of vulnerability in children with mathematical learning disabilities and needs to be considered as a key component in cognitive, neurobiological, and developmental models of typical and atypical mathematical skill acquisition.
TL;DR: Investigations utilizing rodent models indicate that early life exposure to "high fat diets" or simple sugars can impair hippocampus-dependent learning and memory processes, and age, duration of exposure, and dietary composition are key variables contributing to the interaction between early life diet and cognitive dysfunction.
Abstract: Obesogenic dietary factors, such as simple sugars and saturated fatty acids, have been linked to memory impairments and hippocampal dysfunction. Recent evidence suggests that the brain may be particularly vulnerable to the effects of obesogenic diets during early life periods of rapid growth, maturation, and brain development. Investigations utilizing rodent models indicate that early life exposure to "high fat diets" (40-65% kcal derived from fat) or simple sugars (sucrose or high fructose corn syrup) can impair hippocampus-dependent learning and memory processes. In some cases, these deficits occur independent of obesity and metabolic derangement and can persist into adulthood despite dietary intervention. Various neurobiological mechanisms have been identified that may link early life consumption of obesogenic dietary factors with hippocampal dysfunction, including increased neuroinflammation and reduced neurotrophin mediated regulation of neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity. Age, duration of exposure, and dietary composition are key variables contributing to the interaction between early life diet and cognitive dysfunction, however, more research is needed to unravel the precise critical windows of development and causal dietary factors.
TL;DR: It is proposed that energy dense Western diets promote overeating, which can further exacerbate hippocampal dysfunction and thus initiate a vicious cycle of both obesity and progressive cognitive decline.
Abstract: Chronic failure to suppress intake during states of positive energy balance leads to weight gain and obesity. The ability to use context - including interoceptive satiety states - to inhibit responding to previously rewarded cues appears to depend on the functional integrity of the hippocampus. Recent evidence implicates energy dense Western diets in several types of hippocampal dysfunction, including reduced expression of neurotrophins and nutrient transporters, increased inflammation, microglial activation, and blood brain barrier permeability. The functional consequences of such insults include impairments in an animal's ability to modulate responding to a previously reinforced cues. We propose that such deficits promote overeating, which can further exacerbate hippocampal dysfunction and thus initiate a vicious cycle of both obesity and progressive cognitive decline.
TL;DR: A social network approach provides a framework to study the link between individual behaviour and population-level patterns and processes, such as frequency-dependant selection and disease and information transmission.
Abstract: A social network approach provides a framework to study the link between individual behaviour and population-level patterns and processes. Studies have demonstrated how animal social network structure can be influenced by factors ranging from characteristics of the environment to characteristics of the individual, such as developmental experience and personality. At the level of the individual, the patterning of social connections can be an important determinant of fitness, predicting both survival and reproductive success. At the population level, network structure can influence the patterning of ecological and evolutionary processes, such as frequency-dependant selection and disease and information transmission.
TL;DR: If GLP-1-based pharmacotherapies are to be used to treat drug addiction and other diseases associated with maladaptive reward behaviors, the neuroscience field must conduct systematic, mechanistic neuropharmacological and behavioral studies of each GLP -1 receptor-expressing nucleus within the brain to treat motivated behaviors.
Abstract: Natural rewards, including food, water, sleep and social interactions, are required to sustain life. The neural substrates that regulate the reinforcing effects of these behaviors are also the same neurobiological mechanisms mediating mood, motivation and the rewarding effects of pharmacological stimuli. That the neuropeptide glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is under investigation for both the homeostatic and hedonic controls of feeding is not surprising or novel. However, if the neural substrates that underline food reward are shared with other reward-related behaviors generally, then future research should investigate and embrace the likelihood that endogenous and exogenous GLP-1 receptor activation may influence multiple reward-related behaviors. Indeed, studies of the neurobiological mechanisms underlying motivated feeding behavior have informed much of the basic research investigating neural substrates of drug addiction. An emerging literature demonstrates a role for the GLP-1 system in modulating maladaptive reward behaviors, including drug and alcohol consumption. Thus, if GLP-1-based pharmacotherapies are to be used to treat drug addiction and other diseases associated with maladaptive reward behaviors (e.g. obesity and eating disorders), the neuroscience field must conduct systematic, mechanistic neuropharmacological and behavioral studies of each GLP-1 receptor-expressing nucleus within the brain. It is possible that behavioral selectivity may result from these studies, which could inform future approaches to targeting GLP-1R signaling in discrete brain nuclei to treat motivated behaviors. Equally as likely, non-selective effects on natural reward and maladaptive reward behaviors may be observed for GLP-1-based pharmacotherapies. In this case, a better understanding of the effects of increased central GLP-1R activation on motivated behaviors will aid in clinical approaches toward treating aberrant feeding behaviors and/or drug dependence.
TL;DR: The conceptual links of the diffusion model of interval timing to other prominent timing models are discussed and recent electrophysiological evidence is interpreted in relation to its predictions.
Abstract: The fundamental assumption of pacemaker accumulator models of interval timing is that timed behavior relies on the accumulation of brain-derived clock signals. Following this theoretical tradition, a recent series of interval timing models has formulated the processing dynamics of timing behavior within the drift-diffusion decision theoretic framework, which has been traditionally applied to explain accuracy and response times in perceptual decision making. The generative processes assumed by these models and their key features can be implemented by neural populations given simple assumptions, and their predictions have received recent support from electrophysiological studies. This paper discusses the conceptual links of the diffusion model of interval timing to other prominent timing models and interprets recent electrophysiological evidence in relation to its predictions.
TL;DR: The issues that arise when data is interpreted through models and strategies for avoiding misinterpretation of data through model fitting are discussed.
Abstract: Generalizing knowledge from experimental data requires constructing theories capable of explaining observations and extending beyond them. Computational modeling offers formal quantitative methods for generating and testing theories of cognition and neural processing. These techniques can be used to extract general principles from specific experimental measurements, but introduce dangers inherent to theory: model-based analyses are conditioned on a set of fixed assumptions that impact the interpretations of experimental data. When these conditions are not met, model-based results can be misleading or biased. Recent work in computational modeling has highlighted the implications of this problem and developed new methods for minimizing its negative impact. Here we discuss the issues that arise when data is interpreted through models and strategies for avoiding misinterpretation of data through model fitting.
TL;DR: A growing body of research indicates that executive function abilities develop rapidly in early childhood, are important contributors to school readiness and early school success, and are highly relevant to early educational programs for children in poverty.
Abstract: Executive function, a term encompassing domain general cognitive processes associated with working memory, inhibitory control, and the flexible shifting of attention is widely studied in research in neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience. Only within the last two decades have researchers examined the development of these cognitive abilities in typical child populations. A growing body of research indicates that executive function abilities develop rapidly in early childhood, are important contributors to school readiness and early school success, and are highly relevant to early educational programs for children in poverty.