Showing papers in "International Journal of Social Robotics in 2009"

Measurement instruments for the anthropomorphism, animacy, likeability, perceived intelligence, and perceived safety of robots

Abstract: This study emphasizes the need for standardized measurement tools for human robot interaction (HRI). If we are to make progress in this field then we must be able to compare the results from different studies. A literature review has been performed on the measurements of five key concepts in HRI: anthropomorphism, animacy, likeability, perceived intelligence, and perceived safety. The results have been distilled into five consistent questionnaires using semantic differential scales. We report reliability and validity indicators based on several empirical studies that used these questionnaires. It is our hope that these questionnaires can be used by robot developers to monitor their progress. Psychologists are invited to further develop the questionnaires by adding new concepts, and to conduct further validations where it appears necessary.

Acceptance of Healthcare Robots for the Older Population: Review and Future Directions

Abstract: The rapidly ageing population is placing increasing strain on healthcare services. Robots have been proposed as a way to assist people to stay healthy and safe in their own homes. However, despite the need for such assistive devices and the success of some healthcare robots, other robots have had a poor response. This article reviews the literature about human responses to healthcare robots and summarises the variables that have been found to influence responses. It may be possible to increase acceptance of healthcare robots by properly assessing the needs of the human user and then matching the robot’s role, appearance and behaviour to these needs. Because robots have limitations in their abilities, another way to increase acceptance may be to modify the expectations of users to better match robots’ abilities. More research needs to investigate potential users’ needs and expectations in specific situations and whether interventions to increase the match between robot and human can increase acceptance.

Keepon: A playful robot for research, therapy, and entertainment

Abstract: Keepon is a small creature-like robot designed for simple, natural, nonverbal interaction with children. The minimal design of Keepon’s appearance and behavior is meant to intuitively and comfortably convey the robot’s expressions of attention and emotion. For the past few years, we have been observing interactions between Keepon and children at various levels of physical, mental, and social development. With typically developing children, we have observed varying styles of play that suggest a progression in ontological understanding of the robot. With children suffering from developmental disorders such as autism, we have observed interactive behaviors that suggest Keepon’s design is effective in eliciting a motivation to share mental states. Finally, in developing technology for interpersonal coordination and interactional synchrony, we have observed an important role of rhythm in establishing engagement between people and robots. This paper presents a comprehensive survey of work done with Keepon to date.

Toward Acceptable Domestic Robots: Applying Insights from Social Psychology

Abstract: Social psychology offers a perspective on the acceptance and adoption of technology that is not often considered in technical circles. In this paper, we discuss several adoption-of-technology models with respect to the acceptance of domestic robots: we examine social-psychology literature and apply it directly to human-robot interaction. We raise key points that we feel will be pivotal to how domestic users respond to robots, and provide a set of guidelines that roboticists and designers of robotic interfaces can use to consider and analyze their designs. Ultimately, understanding how users respond to robots and the reasons behind their responses will enable designers to creating domestic robots that are accepted into homes.

Does the Design of a Robot Influence Its Animacy and Perceived Intelligence

Abstract: Robots exhibit life-like behavior by performing intelligent actions. To enhance human-robot interaction it is necessary to investigate and understand how end-users perceive such animate behavior. In this paper, we report an experiment to investigate how people perceived different designs of robot embodiments in terms of animacy and intelligence. iCat and Robovie II were used as the two embodiments in this experiment. We conducted a between-subject experiment where robot type was the independent variable, and perceived animacy and intelligence of the robot were the dependent variables. Our findings suggest that a robot’s perceived intelligence is significantly correlated with animacy. The correlation between the intelligence and the animacy of a robot was observed to be stronger in the case of the iCat embodiment. Our results also indicate that the more animated the face of the robot, the more likely it is to attract the attention of a user. We also discuss the possible and probable explanations of the results obtained.

The Autonomous City Explorer: Towards Natural Human-Robot Interaction in Urban Environments

Abstract: The Autonomous City Explorer (ACE) project combines research from autonomous outdoor navigation and human-robot interaction. The ACE robot is capable of navigating unknown urban environments without the use of GPS data or prior map knowledge. It finds its way by interacting with pedestrians in a natural and intuitive way and building a topological representation of its surroundings. In a recent experiment the robot managed to successfully travel a 1.5 km distance from the campus of the Technische Universitat Munchen to Marienplatz, the central square of Munich. This article describes the principles and system components for navigation in urban environments, information retrieval through natural human-robot interaction, the construction of a suitable semantic representation as well as results from the field experiment.

Gender Representation and Humanoid Robots Designed for Domestic Use

Abstract: Humanoid robots’ appearance and behavior provide social cues about their purpose and abilities. However, little is known about how a robot’s gender representation will affect users in everyday home use scenarios. This paper presents the results of a study exploring people’s expectations of humanoid robots, or androids, designed for home use. Results of this study demonstrated participants’ willingness to attribute human roles and tasks to an android, although they did not indicate an overall preference for the robot as a social actor. In addition, following the viewing of video stimulus featuring human-robot interactions, robot gender issues surfaced during open-ended interviews.

The Ethical Treatment of Artificially Conscious Robots

Abstract: The ethical aspects of robotics have recently gained sufficient importance to be debated in international forums and to be endowed with their own collective nametag—roboethics Almost all of the discussion within the roboethics community and elsewhere has thus far centred on questions of the form: “Is it ethical to develop and use robots for such-and-such a purpose?”, questions based upon doubts about the effect that a particular type of robot is likely to have, both on society in general and on those with whom the robots will interact in particular What has usually been missing from the debate is the complementary question: “Is it ethical to treat robots in such-and-such a way?” Here we attempt to redress the balance, having first reviewed some of the relevant literature

“I Love This Dog”—Children’s Emotional Attachment to the Robotic Dog AIBO

Abstract: In this paper we present a methodological variation of assessing emotional attachment of children and adults to the robotic pet AIBO, using an atypical application area (a shopping mall) and leaving the participation in the study as totally voluntary. This free exploration case study was situated in a shopping mall for three reasons: People do not expect a robotic pet in this context (first time reaction) and the context allows to address a high number of possible participants and to create an awareness for robots in general. To investigate the methodological concept and to find out if such a setting can be beneficial for a better understanding of the influence of first time contact with a robotic pet to the emotional attachment, we conducted the case study on three consecutive work days. We could show that this method reveals interesting and novel aspects on the development of emotional attachment.

Personal Robots, Appearance, and Human Good: A Methodological Reflection on Roboethics

Abstract: The development of pet robots, toy robots, and sex robots suggests a near-future scenario of habitual living with ‘personal’ robots. How should we evaluate their potential impact on the quality of our lives and existence? In this paper, I argue for an approach to ethics of personal robots that advocates a methodological turn from robots to humans, from mind to interaction, from intelligent thinking to social-emotional being, from reality to appearance, from right to good, from external criteria to good internal to practice, and from theory to experience and imagination. First I outline what I take to be a common approach to roboethics, then I sketch the contours of an alternative methodology: ethics of personal robots as an ethics of appearance, human good, experience, and imagination. The result is a sketch of an empirically informed anthropocentric ethics that aims at understanding and evaluating what robots do to humans as social and emotional beings in virtue of their appearance, in particular how they may contribute to human good and human flourishing. Starting from concrete experience and practice and being sufficiently sensitive to individual and cultural differences, this approach invites us to be attentive to how human good emerges in human–robot interaction and to imagine, possibilities of living with personal robots that help to constitute good human lives

Looking Forward to Sociable Robots

Abstract: This work examines humanoid social robots in Japan and the North America with a view to comparing and contrasting the projects cross culturally. In North America, I look at the work of Cynthia Breazeal at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and her sociable robot project: Kismet. In Japan, at the Osaka University, I consider the project of Hiroshi Ishiguro: Repliee-Q2. I first distinguish between utilitarian and affective social robots. Then, drawing on published works of Breazeal and Ishiguro I examine the proposed vision of each project. Next, I examine specific characteristics (embodied and social intelligence, morphology and aesthetics, and moral equivalence) of Kismet and Repliee with a view to comparing the underlying concepts associated with each. These features are in turn connected to the societal preconditions of robots generally. Specifically, the role that history of robots, theology/spirituality, and popular culture plays in the reception and attitude toward robots is considered.

Toward the Human-Robot Co-Existence Society: On Safety Intelligence for Next Generation Robots

Abstract: Technocrats from many developed countries, especially Japan and South Korea, are preparing for the human–robot co-existence society that they believe will emerge by 2030 Regulators are assuming that within the next two decades, robots will be capable of adapting to complex, unstructured environments and interacting with humans to assist with the performance of daily life tasks Unlike heavily regulated industrial robots that toil in isolated settings, Next Generation Robots will have relative autonomy, which raises a number of safety issues that are the focus of this article Our purpose is to describe a framework for a legal system focused on Next Generation Robots safety issues, including a Safety Intelligence concept that addresses robot Open-Texture Risk We express doubt that a model based on Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics can ever be a suitable foundation for creating an artificial moral agency ensuring robot safety Finally, we make predictions about the most significant Next Generation Robots safety issues that will arise as the human–robot co-existence society emerges

Towards Humanlike Social Touch for Sociable Robotics and Prosthetics: Comparisons on the Compliance, Conformance and Hysteresis of Synthetic and Human Fingertip Skins

Abstract: The artificial hands for sociable robotics and prosthetics are expected to be touched by other people. Because the skin is the main interface during the contact, a need arises to duplicate humanlike characteristics for artificial skins for safety and social acceptance. Towards the goal of replicating humanlike social touch, this paper compares the skin compliance, conformance and hysteresis of typical robotic and prosthetic skin materials, such as silicone and polyurethane, with the published biomechanical behavior of the human fingertip. The objective was achieved through materials characterization, finite element (FE) modeling and validation experiments. Our initial attempt showed that the selected types of silicone and polyurethane materials did not exhibit the same qualities as the human fingertip skin. However, the methodologies described herein can be used to evaluate other materials, their possible combinations or other fingertip design configurations.

Where Robots and Virtual Agents Meet

Abstract: Traditionally, social interaction research has concentrated on either fully virtually embodied agents (e.g. embodied conversational agents) or fully physically embodied agents (e.g. robots). For some time, however, both areas have started augmenting their agents’ capabilities for social interaction using ubiquitous and intelligent environments. We are placing different agent systems for social interaction along Milgram’s Reality-Virtuality Continuum—according to the degree they are embodied in a physical, virtual or mixed reality environment—and show systems that follow the next logical step in this progression, namely social interaction in the middle of Milgram’s continuum, that is, agents richly embodied in the physical and virtual world. This paper surveys the field of social interaction research with embodied agents with a particular view towards their embodiment forms and highlights some of the advantages and issues associated with the very recent field of social interaction with mixed reality agents.

How Quickly Should a Communication Robot Respond? Delaying Strategies and Habituation Effects

Abstract: This paper reports a study about system response time (SRT) in communication robots that utilize human-like social features, such as anthropomorphic appearance and conversation in natural language. Our research purpose is to establish SRT design guidelines in communication robots. The first experiment observed user preferences toward different SRTs in interactions with a robot which indicated that user SRT preferences in a communication robot are peak at one-second SRT. Based on the results of the first experiment, we conducted two further SRT investigations. One is for delaying strategy and we propose conversational filler which is a behavior that notifies listeners that the robot intends to respond. The other is for habituation effect to see the trend of the first experiment’s result will remain or not when using robots in daily life. In both investigations, we addressed how the delaying strategy and the habituation effect affect on SRT preferences.

“Like-Me” Simulation as an Effective and Cognitively Plausible Basis for Social Robotics

Abstract: We present a successful design approach for social robotics based on a computational cognitive architecture and mental simulation. We discuss an approach to a Theory of Mind known as a “like-me” simulation in which the agent uses its own knowledge and capabilities as a model of another agent to predict that agent’s actions. We present three examples of a “like-me” mental simulation in a social context implemented in the embodied version of the Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational (ACT-R) cognitive architecture, ACT-R/E (for ACT-R Embodied). Our examples show the efficacy of a simulation approach in modeling perspective taking (identifying another’s left or right hand), teamwork (simulating a teammate for better team performance), and dominant-submissive social behavior (primate social experiments). We conclude with a discussion of the cognitive plausibility of this approach and our conclusions.

Development and Validation of a Robust Speech Interface for Improved Human-Robot Interaction

Abstract: Robotics technology has made progress on a number of important issues in the last decade. However many challenges remain when it comes to the development of systems for human-robot interaction. This paper presents a case study featuring a robust dialogue interface for human-robot communication onboard an intelligent wheelchair. Underlying this interface is a sophisticated software architecture which allows the chair to perform real-time, robust tracking of the dialogue state, as well as select appropriate responses using rich probabilistic representations. The paper also examines the question of rigorous validation of complex human-robot interfaces by evaluating the proposed interface in the context of a standardized rehabilitation task domain.

Humanoid Robots as a Broadcasting Communication Medium in Open Public Spaces

Abstract: This paper reports a method that uses humanoid robots as a communication medium. Even though many interactive robots are being developed, their interactivity remains much poorer than that of humans due to their limited perception abilities. In our approach, the role of interactive robots is limited to a broadcasting medium for exploring the best way to attract people’s interest to information provided by robots. We propose using robots as a passive social medium, in which they behave as if they are talking together. We conducted an eight-day field experiment at a train station to investigate the effects of such a passive social medium.

Using attachable humanoid parts for realizing imaginary intention and body image

Abstract: We propose a new approach to human-robot interaction (HRI) in which a common target object is anthropomorphized using attachable humanoid parts. With this approach, the user perceives that the target has an intention and senses what the imaginary body of the target looks like through the attached body parts. We experimented how users accepted the intentions and imaginary body image of a common target object using the humanoid parts. We also compared the resulting HRI with that in the case of the general communication robot Robovie to demonstrate the possibilities our proposed method offers. The results indicated that an anthropomorphized target object can interact with users through this approach. Furthermore, in comparison to interaction with an independent communication robot, with this approach, users remembered the functions of the anthropomorphized target to a greater extent and were more intimate with it.

Towards the Development of Emotional Dancing Humanoid Robots

Abstract: Throughout human civilization, dance has been considered to be a means of communication With advances in Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Robot Technology (RT), it is now possible to create biped humanoid robots that can dance This manuscript provides an overview of dancing robots that have been developed during the past 24 years It then introduces several emotional flexible spine humanoid robots developed by the author As part of the introduction, it presents the world’s first humanoid robot that can exhibit dynamic walk with flexible spine motions This is followed by a discussion on applications, some development issues and possible future directions of research related to dancing robots

Modeling Aspects of Theory of Mind with Markov Random Fields

Abstract: We propose Markov random fields (MRFs) as a probabilistic mathematical model for incorporating the internal states of other agents, both human and robotic, into robot decision making. By using estimates of Theory of Mind (ToM), the mental states of other agents can be incorporated into decision making through statistical inference, allowing robots to balance their own goals and internal objectives with those of other collaborating agents. The MRF model is well-suited to domains in which the joint probability over latent (action) and observed (perceived) variables can be factored into pairwise interactions between these variables. Specifically, these interactions occur through functions that evaluate “local evidence” between an observed and latent variable and “compatibility” between a pair of latent variables. We will describe how experimental findings from the ToM literature can be explained using MRF models, and then show how this framework can be applied to a social robotics task. We will also describe how to use belief propagation on a multi-robot MRF as a novel approach to multi-robot coordination, with parallels to human collaboration strategies.

Combining Moral Theory, Modal Logic and Mas to Create Well-Behaving Artificial Agents

Abstract: Witnessing a growing number of increasingly autonomous software agents we interact with or that operate on our behalf under circumstances that are not fully known in advance, we argue that there is a need to provide these agents with moral reasoning capabilities. Looking at the current literature on behaviour constraints and multi-agent (software) systems (MAS), one can distinguish various topics. The first topic concerns the analysis of various forms of restraint and their basis. This topic is at the core of moral philosophy. The second topic concerns the formalized specification of, and the reasoning about the constraints. The research on this topic focuses predominantly on the use of logic, mostly modal logic, and defeasible logic. The last topic is the MAS and implementation related topic of designing a working system in which there are rules that can be enforced and deviant behaviour be detected.

Human robot interaction through semantic integration of multiple modalities, dialog management, and contexts

Abstract: Our research goal is to prove the hypothesis that using multiple modalities, dialog management, context, and semantics improves HRI over using a single modality by testing the hypothesis using a single implementation and application. We tested the hypothesis by simulating a domestic robot that can be taught to clean a house using a multi-modal interface. The multi-modal interface included speech, pointing, field of vision, and head nodding. The contexts included real world context and dialog history. We tested three different dialog-grounding strategies: optimistic, cautious, and pessimistic. We measured the learning process in two ways: dialog succinctness and learning accuracy. Experimental evidence shows that: multiple modalities and contexts improve HRI over speech by itself for various ratios of accuracy to succinctness; the dialog grounding strategy that improves HRI the best depends on the desired ratio of accuracy to succinctness, with optimistic grounding being the best for ratios ≤0.8, and pessimistic grounding being the best otherwise; and the Pareto principle applies to which grounding strategy is the best.

Multi-Layer Architecture of Ubiquitous Robot System for Integrated Services

Abstract: Ubiquitous robot consists of various software and hardware platforms with various functions with different interfaces. In practical sense, it is impossible for software agents to hold all information related to other sensors or mobile robots. This makes it difficult to develop software agents and, at the same time, implement both modularity and scalability for the entire system. This paper proposes a novel multi-layer architecture to address the problems of interoperability between different hardware and software platforms in an ubiquitous environment offering services to the user regardless of space or time constraints. The proposed architecture is composed of five layers, which are classified according to device and environment independency, for modularity, scalability and interoperability between different hardware and software platforms. To show the general feasibility of the proposed architecture, this paper presents case studies in a simplified environment by computer simulation and experiments.

Biometric Emotion Assessment and Feedback in an Immersive Digital Environment

Abstract: Affective computing has increased its significance both in terms of academic and industry attention and investment. Alongside, immersive digital environments have settled as a reliable domain, with progressively inexpensive hardware solutions. Having this in mind, the authors envisioned the automatic real-time user emotion extraction through biometric readings in an immersive digital environment. In the running example, the environment consisted in an aeronautical simulation, and biometric readings were based mainly on galvanic skin response, respiration rate and amplitude, and phalanx temperature. The assessed emotional states were also used to modify some simulation context variables, such as flight path, weather conditions and maneuver smoothness level. The results were consistent with the emotional states as stated by the users, achieving a success rate of 77%, considering single emotions and 86% considering a quadrant-based analysis.

Eye Movements as a Means to Evaluate and Improve Robots

Abstract: With an increase in their capabilities, robots start to play a role in everyday settings. This necessitates a step from a robot-centered (i.e., teaching humans to adapt to robots) to a more human-centered approach (where robots integrate naturally into human activities). Achieving this will increase the effectiveness of robot usage (e.g., shortening the time required for learning), reduce errors, and increase user acceptance. Robotic camera control will play an important role for a more natural and easier-to-interpret behavior, owing to the central importance of gaze in human communication. This study is intended to provide a first step towards improving camera control by a better understanding of human gaze behavior in social situations. To this end, we registered the eye movements of humans watching different types of movies. In all movies, the same two triangles moved around in a self-propelled fashion. However, crucially, some of the movies elicited the attribution of mental states to the triangles, while others did not. This permitted us to directly distinguish eye movement patterns relating to the attribution of mental states in (perceived) social situations, from the patterns in non-social situations. We argue that a better understanding of what characterizes human gaze patterns in social situations will help shape robotic behavior, make it more natural for humans to communicate with robots, and establish joint attention (to certain objects) between humans and robots. In addition, a better understanding of human gaze in social situations will provide a measure for evaluating whether robots are perceived as social agents rather than non-intentional machines. This could help decide which behaviors a robot should display in order to be perceived as a social interaction partner.

Experimenting False Alarm Demand for Human Robot Interactions in Humanoid Soccer Robots

Abstract: Performance of robots in human robot teams has always been a topic of interest for many researchers in human robot interaction community. Traditionally adopted neglect tolerance model for performance measurements assume ideal conditions in which the operator switches control between robots sequentially based on acceptable performance level for each robot ignoring any false alarms due to erroneous interactions. In this paper, we present the false alarm demand, a new metric for measuring effects of false alarms on human robot team performance and extend the neglect tolerance model to situations in which false positives and false negatives are prevalent. Experiments were performed with real and virtual humanoid soccer robots across tele-operated, and point to point modes of autonomy. Measured false alarm demand and robot performances were largely consistent with the proposed extended neglect tolerance model predictions for real and virtual experiments for both autonomy modes. Experiments also showed that extended neglect tolerance model offered better estimation of robot performances as compared to the traditionally adopted neglect tolerance model for situations wherein false alarms are prevalent.

Satisficing Coordination and Social Welfare for Robotic Societies

Abstract: The design of robotic systems that are capable of sophisticated social behavior such as cooperation, compromise, negotiation, and altruism, requires more complex mathematical models than are afforded by the classical mechanisms for making value judgments and decisions. A new concept of multi-agent satisficing, defined in terms of relative effectiveness and efficiency, is an alternative to classical optimization-based decision making. Conditional utilities, which take into account the interests of others as well as the self, represent an alternative to the categorical utilities of classical decision theory. A multi-agent utility aggregation structure is developed that avoids the sure subjugation of the interests of any individual to the interests of the group. By expressing a society as a directed acyclic graph, Bayesian network theory is applied to artificial societies. A satisficing social welfare function accounts for the influence relationships among decision-making agents.

Classification of Standing States for the Humanoid Robot SJTU-HR1

Abstract: The humanoid robot platform, SJTU-HR1, is developed to function within the human-centered environment, which means that it is necessary to study the human-robot interaction, robot-robot interaction, robot-environment interaction, and robot self-interaction. To solve the issue of robot-environment interaction and robot self-interaction, this study presents the state classification from the topological point of view for the SJTU-HR1, particularly the standing states. The generalized function set (G F set for short) theory is exploited to achieve the characteristics of the end-effectors of interest of the SJTU-HR1 for each specific standing state, which can provide deeper insight into the capabilities of the SJTU-HR1. One application example is given to show that the proposed methodology can simplify and clarity the complicated state planning issue for humanoid robots. Moreover, the standing states, including robot-environment interaction and robot self-interaction, can be described using the meaningful notations sufficiently. Although we have focused on the application of the G F set theory on the humanoid robot platform SJTU-HR1, this methodology can also be applied to other biped robots and quadruped robots.

Evolutionary Ethics in Agent Societies

Abstract: To investigate whether the theory of evolutionary ethics is a valid explanation for the existence of ethical behaviour, we approach the ethical issues of morality from a computational point-of-view. We define a model of multi-agent societies, in which agents are able to evolve a moral sense. In the model, moral sense is defined by every agent’s personal set of rules, which determines its interaction with other agents. By performing simulations of the model we investigate under what circumstances the agents in the societies develop a moral sense which allows the society to thrive. We use four conceptually different agent designs: agents with a minimum of attributes, agents with family relations, agents with a memory, and agents with reputation in the society. From our results we conclude that there are circumstances under which agents evolve ethical behaviour, those circumstances being specific settings of family relations and reputation.