Showing papers in "Journal of Applied Social Psychology in 1998"

Extending the Theory of Planned Behavior: A Review and Avenues for Further Research

Abstract: This paper describes and reviews the theory of planned behavior (TPB). The focus is on evidence supporting the further extension of the TPB in various ways. Empirical and theoretical evidence to support the addition of 6 variables to the TPB is reviewed: belief salience measures, past behaviodhabit, perceived behavioral control (PBC) vs. selfefficacy, moral norms, self-identity, and affective beliefs. In each case there appears to be growing empirical evidence to support their addition to the TPB and some understanding of the processes by which they may be related to other TPB variables, intentions, and behavior. Two avenues for expansion of the TPB are presented. First, the possibility of incorporating the TPB into a dual-process model of attitude-behavior relationships is reviewed. Second, the expansion of the TPB to include consideration of the volitional processes determining how goal intentions may lead to goal achievement is discussed.

Predicting and Explaining Intentions and Behavior: How Well Are We Doing?

Abstract: Meta-analyses of research using the theory of reasoned action (TRA) and the theory of planned behavior (TPB) show that these models explain on average between 40% and 50% of the variance in intention, and between 19% and 38% of the variance in behavior. This paper evaluates the performance of these models in predicting and explaining intentions and behavior. It discusses the distinction between prediction and explanation, the different standards of comparison against which predictive performance can be judged, the use of percentage of variance explained as a measure of effect size, and presents 9 reasons why the models do not always predict as well as we would like them to do.

Predicting behavior from actions in the past : repeated decision making or a matter of habit?

Abstract: This paper summarizes research on determinants of repeated behaviors, and the decision processes underlying them. The present research focuses on travel mode choices as an example of such behaviors. It is proposed that when behavior is performed repeatedly and becomes habitual, it is guided by automated cognitive processes, rather than being preceded by elaborate decision processes (i.e., a decision based on attitudes and intentions). First, current attitude-behavior models are discussed, and the role of habit in these models is examined. Second, research is presented on the decision processes preceding travel mode choices. Based on the present theoretical and empirical overview, it is concluded that frequently performed behavior is often a matter of habit, thereby establishing a boundary condition for the applicability of attitude-behavior models. However, more systematic research is required to disentangle the role of habit in attitude-behavior models and to learn more about the cognitive processes underlying habitual behavior.

A General Measure of Ecological Behavior1

Abstract: Measurement of ecological behavior across different domains has been troublesome. The present paper argues that the lack of agreement in measuring general ecological behavior may be due to the measurement approach that is commonly used. An ecological behavior measure should be grounded on a probabilistic measurement approach that takes the important features of ecological behavior into consideration. Such a measure was developed in a survey study of 445 members of 2 Swiss transportation associations. Three types of ecological behavior measures were included: a general measure, 3 multiple-item measures, and 3 single-item measures. Results are controlled for social desirability effects. Reliability, internal consistency, and validity scores indicate that a probabilistic measurement approach can measure general ecological behavior accurately and unidimensionally.

Psychological Contracts, Organizational and Job Commitment

Abstract: Increased use of time-limited contracts as the mainstay of employer-employee relations has implications for the psychological character of the exchange relationship. To investigate this, the current study is framed by Rousseau's (1995) psychological contract model (PCM). The psychological contract pertains to beliefs held by individuals about their contractual terms and conditions. The findings yield evidence for Rousseau's distinction between two types of contractual belief (relational and transactional), as well as the explanatory potential of the PCM over and above the concept of organizational commitment. As predicted. temporary workers were more transactional than relational in their contractual orientation. The findings are discussed with reference to a need to develop a theoretical basis for research on organizational involvement.

Why Are You Doing Things for the Environment? The Motivation Toward the Environment Scale (MTES)1

Abstract: This paper presents 4 studies which were conducted for the purpose of constructing and validating a new measure of people's motivation for environmental behaviors, namely the Motivation Toward the Environment Scale (MTES). The MTES consists of subscales that measure an individual's level of intrinsic, extrinsic, and a motivation for environmental behaviors. These subscales correspond to the different forms of motivation identified by Deci and Ryan in their self-determination theory (SDT, 1985, 1991). Results from the first study supported the factor structure of the scale and revealed a satisfactory level of internal consistency. Consistent with the SDT, the more self-determined forms of motivation were associated with more positive responses on the related variables. Implications for the manner in which the public could be encouraged to do environmental behaviors are discussed.

Conceptualizing and Measuring a Power/Interaction Model of Interpersonal Influence1

Abstract: In response to new theoretical conceptualizations (Raven, 1992, 1993), an instrument was developed to measure 11 bases of power, the original 6 French and Raven (1959; Raven, 1965) bases of power, with 3 of these further differentiated: reward (personal, impersonal), coercion (personal. impersonal), legitimate (position, reciprocity, equity, dependence), expert, referent, and information. In Study 1, 317 American student respondents rated the likelihood that each of these power bases contributed to a supervisor successfully influencing a subordinate in a series of hypothetical situations. The internal consistency of the items which made up the 11 power bases proved adequate. Factor analysis found 7 factors and 2 categories of bases: harsh and soft. In Study 2, which used 101 Israeli health workers, the earlier findings were generally supported. In addition, job satisfaction was found to be positively related to the attribution of soft bases to the supervisor.

Self‐Identity and the Theory of Planned Behavior: A Useful Addition or an Unhelpful Artifice?1

Abstract: Among the variables proposed as useful additions to the structure of the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991), there is evidence for the predictive usefulness of a measure of self-identity. In the study reported here, members of the general population in the United Kingdom (n = 235) completed a questionnaire addressing the consumption of a diet low in animal fats. The questionnaire was structured in terms of the TPB and contained additional variables that previous research has indicated to be useful predictors of intentions and behavior. A multiple regression of intentions (R-2 = .80) showed self-identification as a health-conscious consumer to have a predictive effect independent of the effects of these other variables. This effect was also found in replication studies.

Distinguishing between perceived behavioral control and self-efficacy in the domain of academic achievement intentions and behaviors

Abstract: We examined whether perceived behavioral control (PBC) and self-efficacy (S-E) can be distinguished empirically, and whether they make different contributions to the prediction of intentions and behavior. The behavioral criterion was performance in 3 high-school examinations. Measures of attitude, subjective norm, PBC, S-E, and intention were taken before the examinations. Grade achieved served as the behavioral measure. Factor analysis of items intended to measure PBC and S-E extracted 2 factors: confidence in ability to achieve the behavioral outcome, and belief that the outcome can be influenced by own efforts. Scores on these factors were labeled S-E and perceived control, respectively. Behavior was predicted better by S-E than by intentions, and intentions were more closely related to S-E than to attitudes, subjective norms, or perceived control.

Psychological Variables as Predictors of Perceived Ethnic Discrimination Among Minority and Immigrant Adolescents1

Abstract: The occurrence of discrimination in the real world is difficult to determine objectively, as it is defined in part by intentions. The perception of discrimination may therefore be influenced by one's interpretation of the intentions of others. In order to examine psychological characteristics that influence the perception of ethnic discrimination, 164 Armenian, Mexican American, and Vietnamese adolescents completed measures of perceived discrimination (PD), self-esteem, mastery, depression/anxiety, intergroup competence, and ethnic identity, as well as demographic variables. A path analysis showed that higher depression/anxiety scores and lower intergroup competence predicted more PD; depression/anxiety and intergroup competence were in turn predicted by self-esteem and mastery, respectively. Birthplace and socioeconomic status had an indirect effect on PD, via intergroup competence. The results suggest the importance of psychological variables in the perception of discrimination.

Exposing Pluralistic Ignorance to Reduce Alcohol Use Among College Students1

Abstract: Research has shown that students' beliefs about alcohol use are characterized by pluralistic ignorance: The majority of students believe that their peers are uniformly more comfortable with campus alcohol practices than they are. The present study examines the effects of educating students about pluralistic ignorance on their drinking behavior. Entering students (freshmen) participated in either a peer-oriented discussion, which focused on pluralistic ignorance, or an individual-oriented discussion, which focused on decision making in a drinking situation. Four to 6 months later, students in the peer-oriented condition reported drinking significantly less than did students in the individual-oriented condition. Additional results suggest that the peer-oriented discussion reduced the prescriptive strength of the drinking norm. The implications of these results for models of social influence and for the representation of peer opinion are discussed.

The Effect of Music on Atmosphere and Purchase Intentions in a Cafeteria

Abstract: This exploratory study investigates the effect of music on the perceived characteristics of a commercial listening environment and on customers' purchase intentions therein. Three musical styles and also no music were played in a student cafeteria over the course of 4 days. Subjects' responses to a questionnaire indicated that different musical styles had different effects on the perceived characteristics of the cafeteria, and that classical music was associated with subjects being prepared to pay the most for food items on sale therein. There was also some indication that classical and pop music might have increased actual sales in the cafeteria, as compared with easy listening and silence. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for both commercial practice and our theoretical understanding of music and consumer behavior.

Application of an Integrated Behavioral Model to Predict Condom Use: A Prospective Study Among High HIV Risk Groups1

Abstract: An integrated theoretical model using constructs from multiple behavioral models was applied to understand and predict condom use among a sample of injecting drug users, commercial sex workers, men who have sex with men, and multipartnered heterosexuals. Elicitation interviews were conducted to develop a questionnaire to measure model constructs that may be predictive of condom use for sex with vaginal, anal, and oral regular and casual partners. A prospective survey design was used, with 993 participants interviewed at Time 1, and 686 returning for Time 2 interviews 3 months later. Regression analyses were conducted using Time 1 measures to predict intention and Time 2 behavior. Strong support was found for a model that includes attitude, social norm, and facilitators/constraints as predictors of behavior, with multiple correlations in the 0.20 to 0.40 range. Findings also indicate perceived control and facilitators/constraints are distinct constructs and both, along with attitude and social norm, contribute to explaining behavioral intention. Implications for intervention development are discussed.

The Development and Longitudinal Test of a Model of Organizational Identification

Abstract: This study proposed and tested a theoretical model of the organizational identification process using a sample (N= 198) of electric utility employees. Based upon a longitudinal design, results indicated that the antecedents of perceived role-related characteristics and construed external image were related to employees' identification with their organization, while perceived motivating job characteristics were not. Additionally, organizational identification was positively related to the employees' intention to remain within the organization. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Anticipated Regret and Precautionary Sexual Behavior1

Abstract: This study investigated the impact of anticipated regret on precautionary sexual behavior. 317 female and 134 male 18-48 yr old college students completed questionnaires assessing behavioral expectations regarding casual sexual behavior, anticipated regret, perceived behavioral control, attitudes, self-reported behavior, and subjective norms. Results show that anticipated regret predicts a significant and independent proportion of variance in expectations about future contraceptive behavior. A model combining attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and anticipated regret explained 65% of the variance in behavioral expectations. Behavioral expectations explained 34% of the variance in contraceptive behavior of respondents who had casual sex in the 4 wks following the 1st session of the study. Implications for understanding of precautionary sexual behavior and for campaigns aiming to increase safer sexual practices are discussed.

A social dilemma analysis of commuting preferences: The roles of social value orientation and trust

Abstract: The current research advances a social dilemma analysis of commuting, examining the roles of preexisting personality differences in social value orientation (i.e., prosocial vs. proself orientation) and trust (i.e., a general belief in the honesty and cooperative intentions of others) in determining preferences for collectively desirable commuting options: preferences for commuting by public transportation (Study 1) and carpooling (Study 2). Consistent with predictions, both studies revealed that, relative to preferences of prosocials, preferences of proselfs were more strongly associated with beliefs about the relative efficiency of cars (i.e., an outcome affecting personal well-being). Also, greater preferences for collectively desirable actions were observed among prosocials with high trust-relative to prosocials with low trust and proselfs with high or low trust-providing support for the claim that 2 conditions (i.e., prosocial goals and trust in others) must be met to obtain collectively desirable commuting preferences.

Group Consensus and Psychological Well-Being: A Large Field Study1

Abstract: Models of group process propose that stressful social environments develop when there is a lack of consensus among group members about issues of relevance to the group. Based on these models, we expected that levels of consensus would be positively related to the average levels of psychological well-being in naturally occurring work groups. An examination of data from 3,546 respondents within 73 work groups revealed that levels of consensus about leadership and peer relations were positively related to the average psychological well-being of the group members, even after controlling for absolute level effects and covariates. In contrast, levels of consensus were not related to the average psychological well-being of group members when identical analyses were conducted using pseudogroups.

Too Close to Quit: The Role of Project Completion in Maintaining Commitment1

Abstract: Conlon and Garland (1993) demonstrated that information about the degree of project completion, as compared with information about sunk costs, seemed to be the driving force behind continued investment in an R&D project. In the present paper, we replicate and extend this work. In studies with experienced bank managers, Chinese graduate students, and advanced-level MBA students, we find overwhelming support for the importance of project completion on investment intentions, with no indication of typical sunk cost effects. We argue that our results support a goal substitution explanation for many escalation phenomena where, as progress moves forward on a project, completion of the project itself takes increasing precedence over other goals (e. g., economic profit) that may have been more salient at the time the project was initiated.

Beyond Protection Motivation: An Integrative Theory of Health Appeals

Abstract: We develop an integrated theory of health communication by combining protection motivation theory (PMT; Rogers, 1983) with the stages of change described in the transtheoretical model (Prochaska & DClemente, 1982). Our study challenges the assumption implicit in PMT that perceptions of vulnerability, severity, response efficacy, and self-efficacy are equally weighted across individuals. Rather, we propose that people at different stages of readiness to change are differentially affected by levels of these predictor variables. Results from our experiment confirm that vulnerability, severity, and efficacy (response and self) are the main motivators to change behavior during the precontemplation, contemplation, and action stages, respectively. Furthermore, we explore how specific categories of beliefs identified by the transtheoretical model are associated with perceptions of vulnerability, severity, response efficacy, and self-efficacy.

Social Value Orientations and Decisions to Take Proenvironmental Action1

Abstract: This study assessed whether social value orientations influence decisions to actively support a proposal for a transportation pollution reduction program. Participants with prosocial or proself orientations were given the opportunity to send letters of support or opposition to the program director. Proself participants were more likely to send letters opposing the program, whereas prosocial participants were more likely to send letters of support. Although proself and prosocial participants reported equivalent support for the program and equivalent perceptions of the program's environmental benefits, proself participants reported higher perceptions of personal costs associated with the program. Social value orientations may lead to differences in environmental behaviors, primarily because of differences in perceptions of the personal costs incurred from engaging in these behaviors.

Ethnic Identity, Self‐Esteem, and Values in Dominicans, Puerto Ricans, and African Americans

Abstract: This study investigates the relationship between ethnic identity, self-esteem, value orientations, and perceived value congruence in 207 minority students. It also investigates within-group concordance and cross-cultural differences in value orientations. Dilemmas were used to measure value orientations and perceived congruence between personal and group values. A version of the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (Phinney, 1992) and Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale (1965) were used to measure ethnic identity and self-esteem, respectively. Ethnic identity was positively related to self-esteem. The perception of value congruence was not related to ethnic identity or self-esteem. There was within-group concordance in the ranking of value solutions. In addition, the groups differed in the strength of ethnic identity, perceived value congruence, and the ranking of the value solutions.

Components of Burnout, Resources, and Gender-Related Differences1

Abstract: The present study examined gender-related differences in the ways social support and coping contribute to burnout, as measured by the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). Specific hypotheses were made regarding relationships between antecedent conditions and MBI subscales, including emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of personal accomplishment. Respondents were teachers, and data from 2 waves (1 year apart) were examined. Using LISREL structural equation analyses, results were that in women, co-worker support led to lower emotional exhaustion, and in men, supervisor and co-worker support led to higher personal accomplishment. Higher levels of internal control were associated with greater accomplishment in men only. Results were discussed from a gender role perspective.

Belief Importance in Expectancy-Value Models of Attitudes

Abstract: In this study, 312 respondents were asked to indicate their attitude toward smoking and their smoking behavior. Attitudes were assessed by a direct attitude measure (4 items) and a series of 15 belief statements about the possible consequences of smoking. Next, respondents were asked to select the 3 consequences they found most important. Attitude scores derived from these important beliefs were more predictive of behavior than those based on all 15 beliefs, and far superior to attitude scores based on the remaining 12 beliefs. Differences between the 2 groups (smokers vs. nonsmokers) were more pronounced when attitude scores were based on important beliefs, and disappeared for scores based on nonselected, less important beliefs. It is argued that incorporating belief importance in expectancy-value models helps to assess the structure of attitudes and could improve our insight in the determinants of behavioral preference.

Heterogeneity of Incentives for Physical Activity and Self‐Efficacy in Highly Active and Moderately Active Women Exercisers

Abstract: The purpose of this investigation was to examine whether persons exercising 2 times per week or less versus 3 times per week or more, with intentions to maintain current level of activity form a homogenous group in terms of motivational features. A group of 86 women recruited from local fitness clubs reported on their exercise incentives, self-efficacy, exercise behavior, and exercise intentions. A discriminant function analysis revealed that self-efficacy and incentives for stress reduction and mental health discriminated highly active from moderately active women. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of stage theory and research in exercise adherence.

Social Dominance Orientation and the Ideological Legitimization of Social Policy1

Abstract: Much of politics is involved with the distribution of resources and the regulation of intergroup relations. Social dominance theory posits that social ideologies provide social justification for policies that have unequal effects on different social groups. In the present studies, we examine the mediating role that ideologies have in transforming people’s general orientation toward group inequality into policy support. Using data from 5 samples, we offer evidence that social dominance orientation orients people to support discriminatory ideologies, which in turn influence support for policies. Support for the theoretical model was shown in studies of both long-standing social policy attitudes, such as toward social welfare and military programs, and of unfolding political events, including Clarence Thomas’ nomination to the Supreme Court, the Persian Gulf War, and reinstitution of the death penalty in California. Debates over policies often have the form “who deserves what.” For example, during the 1994 United States election campaign, politicians and citizens argued about whether illegal immigrants are entitled to public services, whether single mothers are worthy of public assistance, whether Social Security should be taken away from people who earned it, and whether criminals deserve longer prison terms. To define who is entitled to, or has a right to, positive or negative social goods, categorical distinctions among people are made. To justify why certain policies are right, reasons for discriminating among types of people are provided. In other words, social ideologies both define group membership and imply how different groups of people should be allocated social resources. Social dominance theory therefore postulates that ideologies provide justification for policy support, enabling people to provide reasons for their attitudes toward policies that reflect their values about intergroup relations.

Effects of Poll Reports on Voter Preferences

Abstract: Relative strengths of the bandwagon (or rally-around-the-winner) affect and its converse, the underdog effect, were tested. Study 1 was conducted with registered Republicans during 4 days immediately prior to the first major Republican primary of 1996. Bogus poll data showing Dole leading Forbes (or Dole trailing Forbes) were presented to voters who then voted their preference for Dole, Forbes, or neither. Findings showed a significantly greater tendency to vote for Dole over Forbes when the bogus poll showed Dole leading Forbes than when it showed Dole trailing. Thus, results supported the bandwagon effect and, furthermore, showed it as explaining 6% of the variance in voter preferences. In Study 2, participants were given bogus poll data on 2 personally relevant issues and were then asked to vote their preferences on the issues. Participants had extremely strong consensus preferences on one issue and were not influenced by bogus poll data. On the second issue that involved moderately strong consensus preferences, bogus polls significantly affected votes, supporting the bandwagon effect. Bandwagon effects were stronger for women compared with men, and for 2 of 3 PAD (Pleasantness, Arousability, Dominance) basic temperament factors; that is, for individuals with more arousable and less dominant temperaments. Implications for other personality variables were noted.

The Effects of Interview Structure on Recruiting Outcomes

Abstract: Two laboratory experiments explored the effects of interview structure on evaluations and perceptions of the interview and organization. In the first experiment, subjects were presented with transcripts of interviews and were found to react more favorably to unstructured interviews. This effect was somewhat stronger when there was no information on the job and organization. In the second experiment, participants were presented with profiles of interviews that varied on interviewer warmth and 3 attributes commonly associated with structured interviews (job relevance, low voice, standardization). Participants preferred interviews that were low on job relevance, high on voice, low on standardization, and high on warmth. The preference for low standardization was most pronounced when there was high voice than when there was low voice.

From Compassion to Compensation: The Effect of Injury Severity on Mock Jurors’ Liability Judgments

Abstract: Two studies were performed to ascertain the effect of injury severity on participants' judgments in a simulated jury task. Participants read a summary of a personal-injury case in which the severity of the plaintiffs injury was varied; they were asked to judge the defendant's liability, award compensation. and rate their feelings toward the litigants. In Study I, more severely hurt plaintiffs were more likely to obtain a favorable verdict, even though evidence of liability was held constant. Greater severity influenced liability judgments only insofar as it elicited positive feelings toward the plaintiff or negative feelings toward the defendant, In Study 2, severity was found to have no effect when participants could not award damages, suggesting that more severe injuries arouse feelings for the litigants that are associated with a motivation to alleviate the plaintiffs suffering or to punish the defendant. Strategies for reducing the extralegal influence of injury severity are discussed.

The Influence of Applicant and Interviewer Characteristics on the Use of Impression Management1

Abstract: This study investigated the relationship between characteristics of applicants and interviewers, and type and amount of impression management (IM) used by applicants in the employment interview Specifically, applicant self-monitoring, self-esteem, locus of control, age, and training, and interviewer communication apprehension, interpersonal communication skill, age, and experience all were expected to influence the type and amount of IM behavior exhibited by applicants in the employment interview Data from 64 field interviews confirmed that characteristics of the interviewer and, to a lesser extent, characteristics of the applicants were related to the use of IM tactics by applicants

Individual Differences in the Effectiveness of Sexual Harassment Awareness Training1

Abstract: Little research has investigated the effectiveness of sexual harassment awareness training videos on potential harassers' knowledge, behavior, or attitudes. A laboratory study was conducted that assessed the effects of a sexual harassment awareness training video on several training outcomes: sexual harassment knowledge, touching behavior, and attitudes associated with the likelihood of harassing others. Participants' propensity to harass was measured prior to their participation in the study. Results indicated that video-based training increased knowledge acquisition and reduced the inappropriate behavior of men who had a high propensity to harass. However, the training did not influence participants' long-term attitudes associated with the propensity to harass others. The research and practical implications of the study results are discussed.