Showing papers on "Autonomic nervous system published in 1986"
268 citations
TL;DR: The possibility that CRF is involved in the regulation of the peripheral autonomie nervous system is investigated, supported by the demonstration of specific CRF receptors in the monkey adrenal medulla and sympathetic ganglia.
Abstract: Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) is a key hormone in the integrated response to stress, acting both as the major regulator of pituitary adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) release and as a neuropeptide in the brain. The actions of CRF are mediated by specific plasma membrane receptors in the anterior pituitary gland and in discrete brain areas including the cerebral cortex and several regions related to the limbic system. In addition to the pituitary and central actions of CRF, systemic administration of the peptide in the rat, dog, monkey and man causes hypotension and tachycardia because of a decrease in peripheral vascular resistance. These observations, in conjunction with the finding of immunoreactive and bioactive CRF in peripheral tissues, suggest that the peptide is locally released in tissues to act as a neurotransmitter or paracrine hormone. As CRF is present in the adrenal medulla and the peptide is known to modulate the central activity of the autonomic nervous system, we investigated the possibility that CRF is involved in the regulation of the peripheral autonomic nervous system. Such an action of CRF is supported by our demonstration of specific CRF receptors in the monkey adrenal medulla and sympathetic ganglia. In the adrenal medulla, these receptors are coupled to adenylate cyclase and can stimulate the secretion of catecholamines and Met-enkephalin.
174 citations
TL;DR: The present results suggest that the tachycardia evoked by dynamic exercise is mediated by a biphasic mechanism initially depending on rapid vagal release, which increases progressively with increasing effort, which in turn manifests itself in a more delayed manner at the higher levels of activity.
Abstract: 1. The relative contribution of the efferent components of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems to the heart rate (HR) response to dynamic physical exercise was evaluated in 23 normal males. 2. The dynamic exercise was performed on a bicycle ergometer at work loads of 25, 50 and 100 W, before and after pharmacological blockade with atropine (13 individuals) or propranolol (10 individuals). 3. Parasympathetic blockade significantly depressed the rapid HR response at the beginning of the exercise period at all levels of intensity, whereas sympathetic blockade only affected the slow-response phase (1–4 min), especially at the highest level of effort. 4. The present results suggest that the tachycardia evoked by dynamic exercise is mediated by a biphasic mechanism initially depending on rapid vagal release, which increases progressively with increasing effort. An increased sympathetic activity manifests itself in a more delayed manner, especially at the higher levels of activity. 5. Continuous monitoring of HR during the entire period of activity at different levels of intensity permits the utilization of dynamic exercise as a simple and non-invasive method for the functional evaluation of the two components of the autonomic nervous system of the heart.
116 citations
TL;DR: Intrinsic neurons in the lateral hypothalamus of the rat appear to be specifically involved in mediating learned cardiovascular adjustments in response to conditioned changes in arterial pressure.
105 citations
Journal Article•
TL;DR: The autonomic neuromuscular junction has been defined, with emphasis on the role of muscle effector bundles and en passage release of transmitter from extensive terminal nerve varicosities to diffuse to muscle across variable and often wide junctional clefts.
Abstract: (1) The autonomic neuromuscular junction has been defined, with emphasis on the role of muscle effector bundles and en passage release of transmitter from extensive terminal nerve varicosities to diffuse to muscle across variable and often wide junctional clefts. (2) A multiplicity of neurotransmitters is described in the autonomic nervous system, including purines, peptides, amino acids and monoamines. The ultrastructural identification, projections, roles and interactions of the different nerve types have been discussed. (3) It has been suggested that the part played by peripheral neuroeffector control mechanisms has been underestimated and includes cotransmission, pre- and post-junctional neuromodulation, and the participation of locally released agents. (4) A time-lapse film was shown of the formation of autonomic neuromuscular junctions in culture, introducing questions relating to long-term 'trophic' influences in the autonomic nervous system.
102 citations
TL;DR: It is possible that autonomic disturbances play an important role in the pathophysiology and prognosis of heart failure, and therefore drugs that alter autonomic function may provide additional therapeutic options in the management of this syndrome.
Abstract: Congestive heart failure is a complex clinical syndrome characterized by striking abnormalities of the autonomic nervous system. The mechanisms and biological importance of these disturbances are not clearly defined. Nonetheless, it is possible that autonomic disturbances play an important role in the pathophysiology and prognosis of heart failure, and therefore drugs that alter autonomic function may provide additional therapeutic options in the management of this syndrome.
87 citations
TL;DR: The central nucleus of the amygdala (ACE) was reversibly blocked during extinction of an aversively conditioned cardiorespiratory response in unanesthetized, freely moving cats to support the hypothesis that the ACE plays a role in both cardiovascular and respiratory regulation during conditioned aversive responses.
84 citations
TL;DR: Histological analyses indicated that the posterior PVN was the most effective lesion focus for producing disturbances in body weight and food intake, and basal hyperinsulinemia does not appear to be a primary feature of the PVN obesity syndrome.
80 citations
TL;DR: Evidence is reviewed linking clinical effects of ethanol with actions on the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, and neuropathy affecting the sacral innervation may be a factor in alcoholic impotence.
73 citations
TL;DR: The introduction of microneurography, allowing direct microelectrode recordings of sympathetic discharges in human extremity nerves, has contributed to changing the view of the sympathetic nervous system from the image of a slowly reacting regulatory system to that of a highly differentiated, rapidly activated system.
71 citations
01 Apr 1986
TL;DR: A model showing the reciprocal relation of sympathetic activity to energy reserves is presented and shows that removal of adrenal steroids by adrenalectomy reverses or attenuates all forms of obesity by reducing food intake and possibly by increasing energy expenditure.
Abstract: The regulation of energy reserves is modified by both the autonomic nervous system and the hormonal milieu The activity of the two limbs of the autonomic nervous system shows a reciprocal response to stimulation or damage in either the ventromedial or the lateral hypothalamus Ventromedial hypothalamic lesions decrease the activity of the sympathetic nervous system and increase the activity of the vagus nerve Lateral hypothalamic lesions, on the other hand, increase the activity of the sympathetic nervous system Central neurotransmitters involved in energy balance include the monoamines, amino acids, and peptides Removal of adrenal steroids by adrenalectomy reverses or attenuates all forms of obesity by reducing food intake and possibly by increasing energy expenditure Acute insulin injections increase food intake, but chronic injections may reduce it A model showing the reciprocal relation of sympathetic activity to energy reserves is presented
TL;DR: Using a sensitive radioimmunoassay, it was possible to detect ANF-like immunoreactive peptide(s) in crude and chromatographically separated extracts of parasympathetic rat ganglia and the partially purified ANf-like peptide exhibited a biological action similar to cardiac ANF.
TL;DR: Evidence from pharmacological testing suggests that PCT is a sensitive measure of dysfunction of the parasympathetic efferent limb of the pupillary light reflex arc, and the finding that P CT is prolonged in a high proportion of patients with evidence of autonomic neuropathy judged by abnormalities of their cardiovascular reflexes is confirmed.
Abstract: Persistent regular oscillations of the pupil of the eye can be induced using a slit-lamp. The period of these oscillations, pupil cycle time (PCT), is simple to measure with a hand-held stop-watch. Evidence from pharmacological testing suggests that PCT is a sensitive measure of dysfunction of the parasympathetic efferent limb of the pupillary light reflex arc. This is confirmed by the finding that PCT is prolonged in a high proportion of patients with evidence of autonomic neuropathy judged by abnormalities of their cardiovascular reflexes. The method provides a simple, non-invasive way of quantifying an autonomic reflex and it may be of value in investigating patients with diseases affecting the autonomic nervous system.
TL;DR: Electrophysiological measurements of sinus node function and autonomic influences indicate that the respective role of the two components of the autonomic nervous system vary with increasing age: parasympathetic activity predominates in younger subjects; sympathetic and parASYmpathetic tones are equilibrated in older subjects.
Abstract: An electrophysiological study of sinus node function, including measurements of resting heart rate, maximal corrected sinus node recovery time and sinoatrial conduction time, was performed in 30 patients, 12-79 years of age, without any clinical, electrocardiographic or electrophysiological evidence of sinus node disease. To analyse autonomic influences, variables were measured before and after sympathetic and parasympathetic blockade. No significant correlations were observed between age and electrophysiological measurements of sinus node function at the control study or after sympathetic blockade. In contrast, the electrophysiological parameters of intrinsic sinus node activity were correlated with age and showed a progressive lengthening of mean sinus cycle length, of maximal corrected sinus node recovery time and of sinoatrial conduction time. In addition, measurements after vagolysis suggest a progressive decrease of parasympathetic activity with increasing age. These data also indicate that the respective role of the two components of the autonomic nervous system vary with increasing age: parasympathetic activity predominates in younger subjects; sympathetic and parasympathetic tones are equilibrated in older subjects. The normal sinus node function represents an equilibrated system: in parallel with ageing of the intrinsic properties of the sinus node, parasympathetic activity decreases so that basal properties remain stable throughout life.
TL;DR: It is shown that there is an alternation in catecholamine levels of blood drawn from anticubital veins that may also correlate with the nasal cycle, suggesting that the autonomic nervous system may alternate in activity through paired structures.
Book•
12 Aug 1986
TL;DR: Development of Central Autonomic regulation of Cardiovascular Function and Relationships Between the Sympathetic Nervous System and Functional Development of Smooth Muscle End Organs are described.
Abstract: 1 Ontogeny of the Autonomic Nervous System: Cell Line Divergence and Differentiation.- 2 Development of Peripheral Parasympathetic Neurons and Synapses.- 3 Development of the Sympathoadrenal Axis.- 4 Endocrine Control of Synaptic Development in the Sympathetic Nervous System: The Cardiac-Sympathetic Axis.- 5 Development of Ans Innervation to the Avian Heart.- 6 Development of Autonomic Innervation in Mammalian Myocardium.- 7 Autonomic Effects in the Developing Heart.- 8 Development, Aging and Plasticity of Perivascular Autonomic Nerves.- 9 Regulation of Regional Vascular Beds by the Developing Autonomic Nervous System.- 10 Relationships Between the Sympathetic Nervous System and Functional Development of Smooth Muscle End Organs.- 11 Development of Central Autonomic regulation of Cardiovascular Function.- 12 Developmental Changes in Neural Control of Respiration.- Appendix: List of Abbreviations.
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the autonomic nervous system in animal models for diabetes and found that the lesion in the sympathetic preganglionic nerve fibers was associated with decreased cellular activity and imbalance between cellular synthesis and secretion, which suggests a causal relationship between fiber and neuronal lesions.
TL;DR: It is demonstrated that widespread behavioral and physiological changes, with concomitant alteration in the regional cerebral metabolic rate for glucose, may accompany unilateral thalamic stimulation.
Abstract: A 48-year-old woman with a stimulating electrode implanted in the right thalamic nucleus ventralis posterolateralis developed compulsive self-stimulation associated with erotic sensations and changes in autonomic and neurologic function. Stimulation effects were evaluated by neuropsychologic testing, endocrine studies, positron emission tomographic measurements of regional cerebral metabolic rate for glucose, EEG and evoked potentials. During stimulation, vital signs and pupillary diameter increased and a left hemiparesis and left hemisensory loss developed. Verbal functions deteriorated and visuospatial processing improved. Plasma growth hormone concentrations decreased, and adrenocorticotrophic hormone and cortisol levels rose. With stimulation, glucose metabolism increased in both thalami and both hemispheres, reversing baseline right-sided hypometabolism and right-left asymmetries. EEG and both somatosensory and brain-stem auditory evoked potentials remained unchanged during stimulation, while visual evoked potentials revealed evidence of anterior visual pathway dysfunction in the left eye. This case establishes the potential for addiction to deep brain stimulation and demonstrates that widespread behavioral and physiological changes, with concomitant alteration in the regional cerebral metabolic rate for glucose, may accompany unilateral thalamic stimulation.
Journal Article•
TL;DR: The finding that both adrenaline and acetylcholine alter ANP secretion rate points to the participation of autonomic nerves in the regulation of ANP release from atrial cardiocytes.
Abstract: To evaluate the role of the autonomic nervous system in the regulation of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) secretion, the secretory responses of isolated perfused rat hearts to adrenaline and acetylcholine were studied. Infusion of adrenaline produced a dose-dependent rise in heart rate and contractile force associated with a marked increase in perfusate ANP immunoreactivity. The ANP response was almost completely abolished by the alpha-adrenoceptor antagonist phentolamine (10(-6)) and attenuated by the beta-adrenoceptor antagonist metoprolol (10(-5)). Thus, both alpha- and beta-adrenoceptors may mediate the adrenaline effect on ANP release. Perfusion of the isolated heart with 10(-6) or 10(-5) acetylcholine resulted in a short rise in hormone release followed by a gradual decline. The negative ionotropic and chronotropic effects of acetylcholine and the rise in ANP induced by acetylcholine were blocked by atropine, suggesting that a muscarinic receptor is involved. The finding that both adrenaline and acetylcholine alter ANP secretion rate points to the participation of autonomic nerves in the regulation of ANP release from atrial cardiocytes.
TL;DR: Stimulated parotid salivary flow studies were performed on 20 non‐diabetic subjects and on 30 patients with insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus who had been screened for autonomic neuropathy using tests of cardiovascular reflexes.
Abstract: Stimulated parotid salivary flow studies were performed on 20 non-diabetic subjects and on 30 patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus who had been screened for autonomic neuropathy using tests of cardiovascular reflexes. Electrical gustometry was performed to detect the taste threshold.
The stimulated parotid salivary flow rates of diabetics with no autonomic neuropathy or early parasympathetic autonomic dysfunction alone were similar to those of non-diabetic subjects. Diabetic patients with established parasympathetic autonomic neuropathy had significantly higher salivary flow rates as did those with combined sympathetic and parasympathetic neuropathies. Taste thresholds did not correlate either with the duration of the diabetes or with the presence of autonomic neuropathy.
The cause of the increased salivary flow associated with diabetic autonomic neuropathy is unclear. It may represent the removal of a neural inhibitory mechanism which modulates salivary flow, or the effects of long-standing diabetes on salivary secretion.
TL;DR: The parameters which reflect the function of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system were lower in the alcoholics compared with the controls and the most sensitive variables were the heart rate variation at rest, and the postural pulse reaction.
Abstract: Twenty-eight male alcoholics were studied for peripheral sensory-motor and autonomic neuropathy. The patients were examined neurologically and neurophysiologically after a period of withdrawal treatment in hospital. The function tests of the autonomic nervous system performed were: measurement of the variation of the heart rate at rest and during maximal breathing, Valsalva manoeuvre, postural pulse and blood pressure reactions, and isometric test. Slight abnormalities in the peripheral nervous system were observed in 8 patients, but a frank clinical polyneuropathy supported by neurophysiological findings could be diagnosed only in 2. All of the parameters which reflect the function of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system were lower in the alcoholics compared with the controls. The most sensitive variables were the heart rate variation at rest, and the postural pulse reaction. The functions mediated by the sympathetic nervous system were not abnormal among this group of alcoholics.
TL;DR: The adrenergic and cholinergic innervation of the smooth and striated muscle components of the urethra from spinal cord injury patients with detrusor sphincter dyssynergia were investigated neurochemically and histochemically for the presence of adrenergic nerves associated with the skeletal muscle.
TL;DR: The conclusion that mechanical stimulation of the larynx reflexly activates not only the well-known vagal cholinergic excitatory pathway to the airways but also the more recently described vagal, nonadrenergic noncholinergic inhibitory pathway is supported.
Abstract: Experiments were undertaken to learn if the nonadrenergic noncholinergic inhibitory nervous system (NANCIS) in feline airways could be activated reflexly either by mechanically stimulating the laryngeal mucosa or by inducing acute bronchospasm with boluses of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT) injected intravenously. Mechanical stimulation of the dorsal laryngeal mucosa evoked a biphasic bronchomotor response in anesthetized cats that had received intravenously an infusion of 5HT to raise their basal airway smooth muscle tone. The response consisted of a transient augmentation of bronchoconstriction followed by a prolonged bronchodilation. After muscarinic cholinergic receptor blockade with atropine, the constriction phase of the response disappeared, but the relaxation phase persisted. Bronchodilation elicited by laryngeal stimulation was resistant to beta-adrenergic receptor blockade with propranolol but was abolished by autonomic ganglionic blockade with hexamethonium and blocked reversibly by vagal cooling. The latter interventions, when imposed between successive dose-response curves generated by intravenous 5HT in animals pretreated with atropine and propranolol, did not alter the positions or slopes of the curves. These findings support the conclusion that mechanical stimulation of the larynx reflexly activates not only the well-known vagal cholinergic excitatory pathway to the airways but also the more recently described vagal, nonadrenergic noncholinergic inhibitory pathway. The results further indicate that bronchoconstriction is neither a prerequisite for the bronchodilator component of the laryngeal bronchomotor reflex nor an independent initiating stimulus for NANCIS-mediated reflex bronchodilation.
TL;DR: A patient with tetanus had a labile blood pressure caused by marked fluctuations in systemic vascular resistance, and during hypotensive episodes, mixed venous oxygen saturation decreased below 60%.
Abstract: A patient with tetanus had a labile blood pressure caused by marked fluctuations in systemic vascular resistance. During hypotensive episodes, mixed venous oxygen saturation decreased below 60%. Hemodynamic instability was controlled after institution of a continuous lumbar epidural local anesthetic block.
TL;DR: Results indicate that specific cardiopulmonary nerves exist in cats, which when stimulated, modify the cardiovascular system in specific fashions.
Abstract: In recognition of the extensive use of the cat as an experimental model of cardiac innervation, the effects of electrical stimulation of stellate ganglia, thoracic vagosympathetic complexes, and individual feline cardiopulmonary nerves on heart rate, blood pressure, and contractility in all four cardiac chambers were analysed and correlated with the anatomy of the thoracic autonomic nervous system. The right and left stellate ganglia in cats are relatively large and globular. Distinct dorsal and ventral ansae subclavia arise from these ganglia, connecting with the relatively small, spindle-shaped middle cervical ganglia situated in the apices of the thoracic cage bilaterally. A cranial pole nerve arises from each of the middle cervical ganglia and courses cranially to unite with the ipsilateral superior cervical ganglia. On each side, the major cardiopulmonary nerves arise from the middle cervical ganglion, the relatively large vagosympathetic trunk, and the stellate ganglion. On the right side these nerves consist of a very small right stellate cardiac nerve, a recurrent cardiac nerve, a group of craniovagal nerves and a group of caudovagal cardiopulmonary nerves. On the left side are the left stellate cardiac, ventrolateral, ventromedial, and innominate cardiopulmonary nerves. All of these nerves contain efferent parasympathetic and/or sympathetic fibers which modify cardiac chronotropism and/or inotropism. Some contain afferent fibers. These results indicate that specific cardiopulmonary nerves exist in cats, which when stimulated, modify the cardiovascular system in specific fashions.
01 Jan 1986
TL;DR: The role of activity in the development of the Mammalian Motor Unit and the Reorganization of Motor Units in Reinnervated Skeletal Muscle and the Role of Passive Stretch in Retarding Muscle Atrophy are studied.
Abstract: I. Effects of Nerves on Muscle.- The Role of Activity in the Development of the Mammalian Motor Unit.- Skeletal Muscle Adaptation in Response to Chronic Stimulation.- The Effect of Long-Term Electrical Stimulation on Capillary Supply and Metabolism in Fast Skeletal Muscle.- The Acetylcholine Receptor and Neural Control of Its Distribution.- Factors Influencing Motor Nerve Growth.- II. Repair Processes in the Peripheral Nervous System.- Neural Activity and the Reorganization of Motor Units in Reinnervated Skeletal Muscle.- Electrical Activity in Injured Peripheral Nerves.- Assessment of the Regenerative Capacity of Peripheral Nervous System: Enhancement of Sprouting Capacity by Exogenous Gangliosides.- Effects of Activity on Restorative Processes in the Autonomic Nervous System.- III. Muscle Plasticity in Disease.- The Role of Passive Stretch in Retarding Muscle Atrophy.- Stimulation of Denervated Muscle. What Do Isometric and Isotonic Recordings Tell Us?.- Effect of Electrical Stimulation on Denervated Muscle.- Effects of Electrical Stimulation on Normal and Diseased Human Muscle.- Treatment of Idiopathic Scoliosis with Daily Short-Term Electrostimulation.
TL;DR: The autonomic nervous system functions of 49 young migraine patients, aged from 11 to 22 years, were investigated during headache-free intervals by utilizing a number of cardiovascular reflexes as indices as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: SYNOPSIS
The autonomic nervous system functions of 49 young migraine patients, aged from 11 to 22 years, wereinvestigated during headache-free intervals by utilizing a number of cardiovascular reflexes as indices.Twenty-five healthy subjects of similar age served as a control group. The pulse rate (R-R-interval)variation was registered in normal and deep breathing, during the Valsalva manoeuvre, and in anorthostatic test (a tilt table was used); and the blood pressure measurements were performed in anorthostatic test and during an isometric work test. There were no significant differences between the groupof young migraine patients and the control group. Furthermore, all numeric mean values were in thenormal limits given in the literature; only incidental abnormal values were encountered, and even then inboth groups. Moreover, the cardiovascular reflex responses of various subgroups of migraine patients(common-classic, frequent -infrequent attacks, patients with or without autonomic nervous systemdysfunction signs during attacks, normal-abnormal EEGs), did not significantly differ from each otherduring this interictal recording period. The results suggest intact autonomic nervous system functions inyoung migraine patients during headache free intervals.
TL;DR: Intraluminal pressure was measured in the isolated, fluid‐filled trachea of the guinea pig with autonomic innervation on the right side intact to reflect excitatory or inhibitory responses respectively, in the tracheal smooth muscle.
Abstract: Intraluminal pressure was measured in the isolated, fluid-filled trachea of the guinea pig, with autonomic innervation on the right side intact. Increases or decreases in intraluminal pressure reflected excitatory or inhibitory responses respectively, in the tracheal smooth muscle. Stimulation of the cervical vagus nerve evoked a cholinergic excitatory response. After cholinergic blockade with atropine, a non-adrenergic, non-cholinergic inhibitory response was obtained. Stimulation of the cervical sympathetic trunk, or stellate ganglion, evoked beta-adrenergic inhibitory responses. In the presence of propranolol, sympathetic stimulation evoked alpha-adrenergic excitatory responses which were of low amplitude (less than or equal to 5% of cholinergic excitatory responses). In the presence of phentolamine but not prazosin, beta-adrenergic inhibitory responses were potentiated. Neostigmine potentiated responses to vagal stimulation, increasing the amplitude and duration of response. At higher concentrations neostigmine (i) raised intraluminal pressure, a response blocked by atropine, and (ii) attenuated sympathetic inhibitory responses, an effect largely blocked by atropine. Histamine increased intraluminal pressure and this response was attenuated by atropine. In the presence of histamine, vagal excitatory responses were attenuated. Sympathetic inhibitory responses at low frequencies of stimulation (up to 10 Hz) were inhibited by histamine. 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) increased intraluminal pressure also, an effect partially blocked by atropine. 5-HT had no effect on vagal excitatory responses. Like histamine, 5-HT attenuated sympathetic inhibitory responses at lower frequencies of stimulation.
TL;DR: There was no significant rise in pancreatic polypeptide either in the diabetics with parasympathetic damage alone or in those with additional sympathetic damage, providing further evidence for the diffuse nature of the damage in diabetic autonomic neuropathy.
Abstract: Six normal subjects and 16 insulin-dependent diabetics with varying degrees of autonomic damage each had blood sampled for norepinephrine and pancreatic polypeptide for fifteen minutes after a mixed meal and intravenous (IV) edrophonium (Tensilon). The normal subjects showed a brisk but short-lived rise in norepinephrine after edrophonium (average maximum increase 70% between 2 and 6 minutes), as did most diabetics. However, diabetics with cardiovascular reflex evidence of sympathetic damage showed no rise in norepinephrine. Pancreatic polypeptide concentrations increased up to 400% above baseline after a mixed meal in both the normal and the diabetic group with normal cardiovascular reflexes. There was no significant rise in pancreatic polypeptide either in the diabetics with parasympathetic damage alone or in those with additional sympathetic damage. These results provide further evidence for the diffuse nature of the damage in diabetic autonomic neuropathy.
01 Jan 1986
TL;DR: Inflation of the lung, gut, bladder, mammary glands, and probably cerebrospinal fluid all provides essential feedback for autonomic regulation and Osmoregulation at the systemic level and cell volume itself are likely to be controlled by feedback from membrane tension.
Abstract: Mechanical transduction is the most widespread sensory modality in animals Specialized organs of the cochlea (Hudspeth, 1983) and vestibular system provide our sense of hearing and local gravity Our sense of touch and vibration, particularly in the skin, is mediated by a variety of specialized mechanosensors and possibly free nerve endings (Iggo and Andres, 1982) Muscle tension is transduced by Ia afferent nerves in muscle spindles, while tendon tension is transduced by Golgi tendon organs Joint position is transduced by poorly understood receptors in the joint capsule The inflation of hollow organs is reported by sensory nerves of the autonomic nervous system, although the location of the actual transducers is not known and may reside in nerve cells, muscle cells, or other types of supporting cells Inflation of blood vessels is used to measure blood pressure Inflation of the lung, gut, bladder, mammary glands, and probably cerebrospinal fluid all provides essential feedback for autonomic regulation Osmoregulation at the systemic level and cell volume itself (Kregenow, 1981) are likely to be controlled by feedback from membrane tension