Showing papers on "Bainite published in 2014"

Effect of the martensite distribution on the strain hardening and ductile fracture behaviors in dual-phase steel

Abstract: In order to clarify the effects of the martensite distribution on the mechanical properties of low-carbon dual-phase steel, four types of dual-phase steel with different ferrite grain sizes and martensite distributions were prepared using a thermomechanical treatment. The tensile properties of these steels were investigated; in particular, the strain hardening and the ductile fracture behaviors were discussed in terms of the strain partitioning between the ferrite and martensite and the formation and growth of micro-voids, respectively. When the martensite grains surround the ferrite grains and form a chain-like networked structure, the strain hardenability is greatly improved without a significant loss of elongation, while the necking deformability is considerably reduced. A digital-image correlation analysis revealed that the tensile strain in the martensite region in the chain-like networked dual-phase structure is markedly increased during tensile deformation, which leads to an improvement in the strain hardenability. On the other hand, the joint part of the martensite grains in the structure acts as a preferential formation site for micro-voids. The number density of the micro-voids rapidly increases with increasing tensile strain, which would cause the lower necking deformability.

Effect of fresh martensite on the stability of retained austenite in quenching and partitioning steel

Abstract: Restrictions on fuel consumption and safety in the automotive industry have stimulated the development of quenching and partitioning (Q&P) steel. This steel is expected to have very high strength in combination with acceptable ductility owing to its microstructure consisting of martensite with a considerable amount of retained austenite. The effect of retained austenite on the mechanical properties and its transformation stability were determined by stepwise uniaxial micro-tensile testing and subsequent electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) study of a pre-selected region. The austenite fraction evolution with increasing plastic deformation and the influence of fresh martensite on the local strain distribution were quantified based on the orientation data. The decrease of the retained austenite as a function of the applied strain was described by an exponential function with the pre-exponential and exponential factors related to the starting austenite fraction and its transformation stability respectively. It was proven that the presence of fresh martensite has a negative influence on this austenite transformation stability due to its constraining effect on the strain distribution. This effects the mechanical properties manifested by changes in the strain hardening behavior and total elongation. The results suggest that the ductility of the Q&P steels can be improved by an appropriate design of the heat treatment schedule in order to ensure high retained austenite fractions without the presence of fresh martensite in the final microstructure.

Microstructure–properties relationship in a one-step quenched and partitioned steel

Abstract: To comprehensively analyze the relationship between the microstructure and mechanical properties in a one-step quenched and partitioned (Q&P) steel, Q&P processes with different partitioning time were applied to a low-carbon steel. Microstructures were characterized by means of EPMA, XRD, EBSD and TEM. The dislocation density of martensite was calculated using the Williamson–Hall method. Mechanical properties were measured by uniaxial tensile tests. Results show that the microstructures consist of lath martensite accompanying with both film-like inter-lath retained austenite and blocky retained austenite. Martensite laths broaden with prolonged partitioning time. The amount of retained austenite increases first and decreases with the critical partitioning time of 100 s. The relation between the microstructure and properties was clarified by analyzing the stress–strain curves stage by stage combining with the substructure of martensite and the condition of retained austenite. The presence of retained austenite decreases the elastic limit and influences on the yield strength for its early plastic deformation. Two kinds of nano-scaled carbide appearing in the specimens partitioned longer than 100 s promote the austenite decomposition and play the main role in increasing the yield strength. The interaction of the dislocations in martensite and the transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) effect of retained austenite increase the work hardening rate and improve both the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and the uniform elongation.

Young’s Modulus of Austenite and Martensite Phases in Superelastic NiTi Wires

Abstract: Young’s moduli of superelastic NiTi wires in austenite and stress-induced martensite states were evaluated by three different experimental methods (tensile tests, in situ synchrotron x-ray diffraction, and dynamic mechanical analysis) and estimated via theoretical calculation from elastic constants. The unusually low value of the Young’s modulus of the martensite phase appearing in material property tables (<40 GPa) is generally ascribed in the literature to the fact that stress-driven martensitic transformation and/or twinning processes continue even beyond the transformation range and effectively decrease the value of the tangent modulus evaluated from macroscopic stress-strain curve. In this work, we claim that this low value is real in the sense that it corresponds to the appropriate combination of elastic constants of the B19′ martensite phase forming the polycrystalline wire. However, the Young’s modulus of the martensite phase is low only for wire loaded in tension, not for compression or other deformation modes. It is shown that the low value of the martensite Young’s modulus in tension is due to the combination of the unique coincidence of elastic anisotropy of the B19′ martensite characterized by the low elastic constant C55, austenite drawing texture, and strong martensite texture due to the martensite variant selection under tensile stress.

Stability of retained austenite in multi-phase microstructure during austempering and its effect on the ductility of a low carbon steel

Abstract: The contribution of multi-phase microstructure and retained austenite on mechanical properties of austempered and intercritical annealed Fe–0.23C–1.8Mn–1.35Si (wt%) steel was studied. The multi-phase microstructure comprised of intercritical ferrite (IF), bainite/martensite, and retained austenite. During austempering, the retained austenite was stabilized, which was studied using a combination of experimental (XRD, TEM) and thermodynamic analysis. The termination of bainitic transformation combined with carbon rejection into residual austenite during the second step austempering treatment is believed to be the underlying basis for stabilization of retained austenite. This led to significant increase in uniform and total elongation (25% and 36%, respectively) and the product of tensile strength and % elongation was 33 GPa%. The work hardening behavior of retained austenite exhibited a three-stage process such that necking was delayed. The increased work hardening rate is attributed to the multi-phase microstructure and TRIP effect.

Microstructure-properties correlation in fiber laser welding of dual-phase and HSLA steels

Abstract: Similar and dissimilar welds of dual-phase (DP) and high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels were made by fiber laser welding (FLW). The welds were characterized with respect to microstructure, micro- and nano-hardness, and tensile properties. The fusion zone (FZ) in the DP welds consisted of fully martensitic structure; whereas HSLA and dissimilar weld FZ microstructure were mixture of martensite and bainite. Analytical transmission electron microscopy (TEM) confirmed bainite structures containing bainitic ferrite laths with intralath and interlath cementite. Precipitation of single variant carbides inside the bainitic ferrite laths were confirmed by measuring the interplanar spacing. The cooling rate in the FZ, estimated using Rosenthal equation, and continuous-cooling-transformation diagrams corroborated the microstructure formed. Nanoindentation was used to verify the hardness of these individual microconstituents, since a much lower nano-hardness for bainite (4.11 GPa) was observed compared to martensite (6.57 GPa) phase. Tensile failure occurred in the tempered area of the heat affected zone (HAZ) in the DP steel welded, which was confirmed by typical cup-like dimple fracture; likewise failure in the HSLA base metal, which occurred in dissimilar and HSLA welds, indicated distinctive dimple and shear dimple ductile morphology.

Phase Transformations: Nondiffusive

Abstract: This Chapter describes the theoretical foundations of most of the major phases that occur due to the solid-state transformation of austenite The phases include allotriomorphic ferrite, pearlite, Widmanstatten ferrite, bainite and martensite, covering in each case the thermodynamics, kinetics and evolution of morphological features, and where appropriate, the crystallography and shape deformation of the phase concerned Elementary mathematical derivations are included without compromising on the seminal features of particular transformations Case studies are then presented, which show the ability of the theory to predict useful steels, for example, the TRIP and TWIP alloys, bulk nanostructured bainite, and welding materials that mitigate the development of residual stress in constrained assemblies

Strain partitioning in ultra-fine grained medium-manganese transformation induced plasticity steel

Abstract: A 7.1-Mn 0.1-C transformation-induced plasticity steel was intercritically annealed at 600 °C and 650 °C for 168 h. Ultra-fine-grained microstructures with annealing temperature dependent retained austenite fractions and tensile properties were produced. in situ neutron diffraction was used to investigate the change in tensile properties via measurement of phase fractions, elastic phase strains, and diffraction peak broadening during deformation. Austenite transformation to martensite controlled initial yielding in the 650 °C annealed steel and stress induced transformation was observed. In contrast, yielding after annealing at 600 °C was controlled by plastic deformation of ferrite, with austenite transformation initiating only after yield point elongation. The sequence of deformation between constituents was readily apparent in the lattice strain and peak width data. During deformation, compressive lattice strains were always developed in austenite, ferrite plastic deformation initiated around 700 MPa in both steels, and tensile stress was preferentially transferred to deformation-induced martensite. The development of compressive strains in austenite was related to constraint of the volume expansion during austenite transformation to martensite.

Application of Quenching and Partitioning (Q&P) Processing to Press Hardening Steel

Abstract: Press hardening steel (PHS) has been increasingly used for the manufacture of structural automotive parts in recent years. One of the most critical characteristics of PHS is a low residual ductility related to a martensitic microstructure. The present work proposes the application of quenching and partitioning (Q&P) processing to improve the ductility of PHS. Q&P processing was applied to a Si- and Cr-added Q&P-compatible PHS, leading to a press hardened microstructure consisting of a tempered martensite matrix containing carbide-free bainite and retained austenite. The simultaneous addition of Si and Cr was used to increase the retained austenite fraction in the Q&P-compatible PHS. The Q&P processing of the PHS resulted in a high volume fraction of C-enriched retained austenite, and excellent mechanical properties. After a quench at 543 K (270 °C) and a partition treatment at 673 K (400 °C), the PHS microstructure contained a high volume fraction of retained austenite and a total elongation (TE) of 17 pct was achieved. The yield strength (YS) and the tensile strength were 1098 and 1320 MPa, respectively. The considerable improvement of the ductility of the Q&P-compatible PHS should lead to an improved in-service ductility beneficial to the passive safety of vehicle passengers.

Low-temperature bainite in low-carbon steel

Abstract: The microstructures and the mechanical properties of 30MnSiCrAlNiMo low-carbon steel were systematically optimized by a series of heat-treatment processes, and the heat-treatment process of low-temperature bainite in low-carbon steel was explored. Results showed that the microstructure of low-temperature bainite in the low-carbon steel, containing a fine plate of carbide-free bainitic ferrite and a thin film of retained austenite, could be produced by continuous cooling transformation around the Ms temperature from Ms+10 °C to Ms−20 °C at a cooling rate of 0.5 °C min −1 . A new model was proposed to evaluate the comprehensive mechanical properties of steel, which found that the low-temperature bainite had the best comprehensive mechanical properties compared to any other microstructures for the low-carbon steel. The higher dislocation density and finer bainitic ferrite plate in the low-temperature bainite resulted in the higher yield strength and the higher toughness, but relatively lower ultimate tensile strength owing to the lower work-hardening rate caused by the higher initial dislocation density. There were some very fine particles in the bainitic ferrite of the steel after isothermal treatment at higher temperature. The ultimate tensile strength and the low-temperature impact toughness of the steel decreased with the volume fraction of the retained austenite increasing, while the elongation initially increased with an increase in the volume fraction of the retained austenite (

Interactions between ferrite recrystallization and austenite formation in high-strength steels

Abstract: Using both experimental and modeling approaches, we give some clarifications regarding the mechanisms of interaction between ferrite recrystallization and austenite formation in cold-rolled high-strength steels. Using different thermal paths, we show that ferrite recrystallization and austenite formation can be strongly interdependent. The nature of the interaction (weak or strong) affects significantly the austenite formation and the resulting microstructure. We show that the kinetics of austenite formation depends intrinsically on both heating rates and the extent of ferrite recrystallization. An unexpected behavior of austenite growth was also seen at high heating rates. A possible explanation is presented based on the nature of the local equilibrium at the ferrite–austenite interface. The microstructure is more heterogeneous and anisotropic when both austenite formation and ferrite recrystallization overlap. A mechanism of microstructural formation is proposed, and this is supported by 2D simulations’ images.

Design of Novel Bainitic Steels: Moving from UltraFine to Nanoscale Structures

Abstract: The concepts of phase transformation theory can be exploited to design nanostructured steels that transform to bainite at temperatures as low as 150°C. The microstructure obtained is so refined that it is possible to achieve strength in excess of 2.5 GPa in a material that has considerable toughness (40 MPam1/2). Such a combination of properties has never been achieved before with bainite. A description of the characteristics and significance of this remarkable microstructure in the context of the mechanism of transformation is provided.

On the role of interlath retained austenite in the deformation of lath martensite

Abstract: Literature presents extensive experimental evidence of large deformation and ductile fracture behaviour of lath martensite in martensitic and multi-phase high strength steels under quasi-static, uniaxial loading conditions. The physical origin of this apparent ductile behaviour of martensite is not clear, since martensite generally provides a high material strength. The presence of thin films of interlath retained austenite may trigger the observed apparent martensite ductility. The present contribution investigates the role played by interlath retained austenite on the mechanics of lath martensite by means of crystal plasticity simulations. It is shown that independently from the interlath retained austenite volume fraction and the exact lath morphology, localized shearing along the lath habit plane occurs as long as there are enough carriers for plasticity. The austenite film acts like a 'greasy' plane on which the stiffer laths can slide. The shearing mechanism is not a mere consequence of the lower flow stress in the austenitic phase, but it is largely due to the orientation relationship between the retained austenite face centred cubic lattice and the body centred cubic lath crystals.

Study of microstructural evolution, microstructure-mechanical properties correlation and collaborative deformation-transformation behavior of quenching and partitioning (Q&P) steel

Abstract: This paper presents a detailed characterization of the microstructural evolution of quenching and partitioning (Q&P) steel by dilatometer, X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. Influence of partitioning time on mechanical properties was investigated and the relationship between microstructures and mechanical properties was established. The results indicate that bainite transformation occurs at the preliminary stage of partitioning and the amount is proportional to quenching temperature. Martensite softening, bainite transformation kinetics, amount and stability of retained austenite collaboratively have effects on mechanical properties. The purpose of the EBSD investigation is to study the changes in the microstructure of the Q&P steel during deformation and obtain a better understanding of collaborative deformation-transformation behavior. During deformation, plastic deformation preferentially occurred in the vicinity of ferrite–martensite interfaces and spread to the interior of ferrite grain with strain increasing. Plastic deformation started to occur in martensite after large strain. Furthermore, grain rotation occurred in some austenite grains or divided into subgrains during deformation.

On Various Aspects of Decomposition of Austenite in a High-Silicon Steel During Quenching and Partitioning

Abstract: Using a Gleeble thermomechanical simulator, a high-silicon steel (Fe-0.2C-1.5Si-2.0Mn-0.6Cr) was laboratory hot-rolled, re-austenitized, quenched into the Ms–Mf range, retaining 15 to 40 pct austenite at the quench stop temperature (TQ), and annealed for 10 to 1000 seconds at or above TQ in order to better understand the mechanisms operating during partitioning. Dilatometer measurements, transmission electron microscopy, and calculations showed that besides carbon partitioning, isothermal martensite and bainite form at the partitioning temperature. While isothermal martensite formation starts almost immediately after quenching with the rate of volume expansion dropping all the time, the beginning of bainite formation is marked by a sudden increase in the rate of expansion. The extent of its formation depends on the partitioning temperature following TTT diagram predictions. At the highest partitioning temperatures martensite tempering competes with partitioning. Small fractions of bainite and high-carbon martensite formed on cooling from the partitioning temperature. The average carbon content of the austenite retained at room temperature as determined from XRD measurements was close to the carbon content estimated from the Ms temperature of the martensite formed during the final cooling.