Showing papers on "Stereotype published in 2015"

Unequal Representation and Gender Stereotypes in Image Search Results for Occupations

Abstract: Information environments have the power to affect people's perceptions and behaviors. In this paper, we present the results of studies in which we characterize the gender bias present in image search results for a variety of occupations. We experimentally evaluate the effects of bias in image search results on the images people choose to represent those careers and on people's perceptions of the prevalence of men and women in each occupation. We find evidence for both stereotype exaggeration and systematic underrepresentation of women in search results. We also find that people rate search results higher when they are consistent with stereotypes for a career, and shifting the representation of gender in image search results can shift people's perceptions about real-world distributions. We also discuss tensions between desires for high-quality results and broader societal goals for equality of representation in this space.

Emotional, Sensitive, and Unfit for Office? Gender Stereotype Activation and Support Female Candidates

Abstract: Women are underrepresented at all levels of elected office. It is suspected that gender stereotypes hinder the electoral success of female candidates, but empirical evidence is inconclusive on whether stereotypes have a direct effect on voting decisions. This empirical conflict stems, in part, from the assumption that voters automatically rely on gender stereotypes when evaluating female candidates. This study explicitly tests the assumption of automatic stereotype activation. I suggest that stereotype reliance depends on whether stereotypes have been activated during a campaign, and it is only when stereotypes are activated that they influence evaluations of female candidates. These hypotheses are tested with a survey experiment and observational analysis. The results show that campaign communication activates stereotypes when they otherwise might not be activated, thereby diminishing support for female candidates.

Stress and Mental Health: Moderating Role of the Strong Black Woman Stereotype

Abstract: Research indicates that Black women highly endorse the Strong Black Woman (SBW) stereotype—a perception that Black women are naturally strong, resilient, self-contained, and self-sacrificing. This ...

On the gender-science stereotypes held by scientists: explicit accord with gender-ratios, implicit accord with scientific identity.

Abstract: Women’s representation in science has changed substantially, but unevenly, over the past 40 years. In health and biological sciences, for example, women’s representation among U.S. scientists is now on par with or greater than men’s, while in physical sciences and engineering they remain a clear minority. We investigated whether variation in proportions of women in scientific disciplines is related to differing levels of male-favoring explicit or implicit stereotypes held by students and scientists in each discipline. We hypothesized that science-is-male stereotypes would be weaker in disciplines where women are better represented. This prediction was tested with a sample of 176,935 college-educated participants (70% female), including thousands of engineers, physicians, and scientists. The prediction was supported for the explicit stereotype, but not for the implicit stereotype. Implicit stereotype strength did not correspond with disciplines’ gender ratios, but, rather, correlated with two indicators of disciplines’ scientific intensity, positively for men and negatively for women. From age 18 on, women who majored or worked in disciplines perceived as more scientific had substantially weaker science-is-male stereotypes than did men in the same disciplines, with gender differences larger than 0.8 standard deviations in the most scientifically-perceived disciplines. Further, particularly for women, differences in the strength of implicit stereotypes across scientific disciplines corresponded with the strength of scientific values held by women in the disciplines. These results are discussed in the context of dual process theory of mental operation and balanced identity theory. The findings point to the need for longitudinal study of the factors’ affecting development of adults’ and, especially, children’s implicit gender stereotypes and scientific identity.

Stereotypes of Aging: Their Effects on the Health of Older Adults

Abstract: The purpose of this review is to present findings on the effects of stereotypes of aging on health outcomes related to older adults, such as physical and mental functioning (specifically) and overall well-being and perceived quality of life (more broadly). This review shows that both positive and negative stereotypes of aging can have enabling and constraining effects on the actions, performance, decisions, attitudes, and, consequently, holistic health of an older adult. This review further highlights a variety of limitations in stereotype research in aging contexts, including a lack of qualitative studies focusing on older adult perspectives and the fluctuating definition of what constitutes “good health” during older age.

"Girls are addicted to likes so they post semi-naked selfies": Peer mediation, normativity and the construction of identity online

Abstract: This paper examines how children aged 11-16 in three European countries (Italy, UK and Spain) develop and present their online identities, and their interactions with peers. It focuses on young people’s engagement with the construction of an online identity on social media through pictures, and explores how peer-mediated conventions of self-presentation are appropriated, legitimated, or resisted in pre-teens’ and teenagers’ discourses. In doing so, we draw on Goffman’s (1959) work on the presentation of self and “impression management” to frame our analysis. Mobile communication and social network sites serve an important role in the process of self-presentation and emancipation, providing “full-time” access to peers and peer culture. Our findings suggest that there are gender differences and the presence of sexual double standards in peer normative discourses. Girls are positioned as being more subjected to peer mediation and pressure. Boys blame girls for posing sexy in photos, and negatively sanction this behaviour as being aimed at increasing one’s popularity online or as an indicator of “a certain type of girl.” However, girls who post provocative photos chose to conform to a sexualised stereotype as a means of being socially accepted by peers. Moreover, they identify with the pressure to always look “perfect” in their online pictures. While cross-national variations do exist, this sexual double standard is observed in all three countries. These insights into current behaviours could be further developed to determine policy guidance for supporting young people as they learn to manage image laden social media.

Stereotype (In)Accuracy in Perceptions of Groups and Individuals

Abstract: Are stereotypes accurate or inaccurate? We summarize evidence that stereotype accuracy is one of the largest and most replicable findings in social psychology. We address controversies in this literature, including the long-standing and continuing but unjustified emphasis on stereotype inaccuracy, how to define and assess stereotype accuracy, and whether stereotypic (vs. individuating) information can be used rationally in person perception. We conclude with suggestions for building theory and for future directions of stereotype (in)accuracy research.

From Discrimination to Internalized Mental Illness Stigma: The Mediating Roles of Anticipated Discrimination and Anticipated Stigma

Abstract: The impact of stigma on mental health and life outcomes for individuals living with mental illness has been well documented. Mental illness stigma has been associated with less treatment utilization (Fung & Tsang, 2010), poorer treatment outcomes (Corrigan & Rao, 2012), reduced relationship quality (Brohan, Elgie, Sartorius, & Thornicroft, 2010), and greater discrimination in employment, housing, and educational contexts (Link, Struening, Rahav, & Nuttbrock, 1997). Self-stigma is defined as the internalization of the negative stereotypes, attitudes, and perceptions held of individuals who are members of a socially devalued group (Corrigan, 2004). An individual who has internalized stigma not only believes the stereotypes to be true, but also believes the stereotypes to be true of him or herself. In the case of mental illness stigma, images of the mentally ill as dangerous, unpredictable, flawed, or possessing a weakness of character become self-defining resulting in fears of rejection, discrimination, and diminished self-concept (Corrigan & Rao, 2012). The actual experience of discrimination may provide evidence or proof that people with mental illness are in fact devalued and are likely to be targets of mistreatment. Although discrimination may play a significant role in the internalization process, discrimination alone is not sufficient to explain the likelihood of internalizing mental illness stigma (Krajewski, Burazeri, & Brand, 2013). We know that some individuals who experience mental illness discrimination do so at a significant personal cost whereas others seem relatively unscathed or even in some cases, derive a sense of empowerment and purpose by the experience (Brohan, Elgie, Sartorius, & Thornicroft, 2010). It is also the case that the expectation of being mistreated or socially devalued may result in stigma internalization even in the absence of actual mental illness discrimination (Corrigan & Rao, 2012). The focus of the current study is to more clearly delineate the relationships among mental illness discrimination, anticipated discrimination, anticipated social stigma, and stigma internalization. A number of studies have examined the aforementioned constructs but typically only one or two in a single investigation. Studies that have assessed experiences of discrimination along with anticipated stigma tend to find high levels of both among individuals suffering from serious mental illness although levels of anticipated stigma are generally much higher than actual experiences of discrimination (Angermeyer, Beck, & Holzinzer, 2004; Cechnicki, Angermeyer, & Bielanska, 2011; Thornicroft, Brohan, Sartorius, & Leese, 2009). Many of these studies, however, do not distinguish between anticipated discrimination and anticipated social stigma. For example, Thornicroft, et al., (2009) as part of the global INDIGO study examined experiences of discrimination and anticipated discrimination among individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia in 27 different countries. While the authors measured a range of actual instances of discrimination (32 situations/experiences), their measure of anticipated discrimination was limited to four items and included both anticipated discrimination (e.g., future discrimination looking for work) and anticipated social stigma (e.g., fear of revealing one’s diagnosis and limiting one’s involvement in close relationships because of fears of rejection). Others have operationalized anticipated social stigma as the expectation of both future discrimination and social/interpersonal devaluation (Angermeyer, Beck, & Holzinzer, 2004; Cechnicki, Angermeyer, & Bielanska, 2011). In the current work, we differentiate between anticipated discrimination – worry about acute acts of discrimination that are likely to happen infrequently such as getting fired from a job or not being rented an apartment due to one’s mental illness– and anticipated social stigma. Anticipated social stigma encompasses worries about more “day-to-day” devaluation and interpersonal distancing such as getting treated with less respect than others and people not wanting to get involved in relationships (Quinn & Chaudoir, 2009). Research has examined the link between mental illness discrimination and internalized stigma but has not yet accounted for the effects of anticipated stigma (Drapalski, et al., 2013; Lysaker et al., 2012). Drapalski and colleagues (2013), using a sample comprised of individuals with serious mental illness, found a significant association between discrimination and internalized stigma (as measured by stereotype endorsement and isolation/withdrawal), but did not find an association between internalized stigma and self-concept, which would be expected if stigma internalization is the application of stereotypes to the self. Lysaker and colleagues (2012) examined the stability of discrimination and internalized stigma over time in a sample of individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia and found that discrimination and internalized stigma at baseline did not predict discrimination and internalized stigma 12 months later. Neither study took into account the effects of anticipated experiences on the relationship between discrimination and internalization. Consistent with the stereotyping and discrimination literature more broadly, the extent to which a specific experience of mental illness discrimination and/or series of experiences leads to internalized mental illness stigma may be contingent, at least in part, on the degree of effort devoted to worrying about, anticipating, and avoiding similar experiences in the future (Corrigan, Larson, & Rusch, 2009; Link & Phelan, 2001). Farrelly and colleagues (2014) did examine the relationships among experienced discrimination, anticipated discrimination, and internalized stigma in a sample of individuals with serious mental illness, however, the analyses focused almost exclusively on anticipated and experienced discrimination rather than internalized stigma. In the current work, we attempt to address some of the unanswered questions in the literature by proposing that the relationship between experienced discrimination and internalization is mediated by anticipated discrimination and stigma. Specifically, we hypothesize that experiences of discrimination will be associated with greater anticipation of discrimination in the future. As individuals anticipate experiencing more discrimination as a consequence of their mental illness, we expect them to also anticipate more social stigma. In turn, as levels of stigma anticipation increase, we expect greater stigma internalization. Much of the literature on mental illness stigma has focused on serious mental illness or specific disorders such as schizophrenia. A focus on serious mental illness is understandable as many of the negative stereotypes, cultural taboos, and myths about mental illness are framed around individuals with serious mental illness, and individuals with serious mental illness will likely suffer the greatest disease burden without treatment. However, the impact of stigma can be felt across the spectrum of mental disorders, conditions, and levels of impairment. As a barrier to treatment, anticipated discrimination and stigma may be especially impactful among individuals who are experiencing less severe mental illness or psychiatric impairment as they are less likely to experience discrimination and yet may remain vulnerable to stigma internalization. In the current study, we did not target specific diagnoses or co-morbidity among participants but rather allowed participants to self-identify as having a mental illness

Why is John More Likely to Become Department Chair Than Jennifer

Abstract: This article reviews some of our research on how gender stereotypes and their accompanying assumptions and expectations can influence the careers of male and female physicians and scientists in a myriad of subtle ways. Although stereotype-based cognitive biases may be invisible and unintentional, they nevertheless shape the experiences of women in academic medicine in ways that frequently constrain their opportunities. We present research on the following: 1) subtle differences in the evaluation of male and female medical students as revealed through text analysis of written evaluations at a critical career juncture, 2) how cultural assumptions about the way men and women should and should not behave influence medical residents' experiences as leaders, and 3) how approaching gender bias among faculty in academic medicine, science, and engineering as a remedial habit can be successful in changing individual behaviors and in improving department climate.

Stereotype threat and racial differences in citizens' experiences of police encounters.

Abstract: We conducted 2 studies to investigate how cultural stereotypes that depict Blacks as criminals affect the way Blacks experience encounters with police officers, expecting that such encounters induce Blacks to feel stereotype threat (i.e., concern about being judged and treated unfairly by police because of the stereotype). In Study 1, we asked Black and White participants to report how they feel when interacting with police officers in general. As predicted, Blacks, but not Whites, reported concern that police officers stereotype them as criminals simply because of their race. In addition, this effect was found for Black men but not Black women. In Study 2, we asked Black and White men to imagine a specific police encounter and assessed potential downstream consequences of stereotype threat. Consistent with Study 1, Black but not White men anticipated feeling stereotype threat in the hypothetical police encounter. Further, racial differences in anticipated threat translated into racial differences in anticipated anxiety, self-regulatory efforts, and behavior that is commonly perceived as suspicious by police officers. By demonstrating that Blacks might expect to be judged and treated unfairly by police because of the negative stereotype of Black criminality, this research extends stereotype threat theory to the new domain of criminal justice encounters. It also has practical implications for understanding how the stereotype could ironically contribute to bias-based policing and racial disparities in the justice system.

Gender stereotype endorsement differentially predicts girls' and boys' trait-state discrepancy in math anxiety

Abstract: Mathematics is associated with anxiety for many students; an emotion linked to lower well-being and poorer learning outcomes. While findings typically show females to report higher trait math anxiety than males, no gender differences have to date been found in state (i.e., momentary) math anxiety. The present diary study aimed to replicate previous findings in investigating whether levels of academic self-concept was related to this discrepancy in trait vs. state anxiety measures. Additionally, mathematics-related gender stereotype endorsement (mathematics is a male domain) was investigated as an additional predictor of the trait-state discrepancy. The sample included 755 German 9th and 10th graders who completed self-report measures of trait math anxiety, math self-concept, and gender stereotype endorsement, in addition to state measures of anxiety after math classes by use of a standardized diary for 2-3 weeks (N within = 6207). As expected, females reported higher trait math anxiety but no gender differences were found for state math anxiety. Also in line with our assumptions, multilevel analyses showed the discrepancy between trait and state anxiety to be negatively related to students' self-concept (i.e., a lower discrepancy for students with higher self-concepts). Furthermore, gender stereotype endorsement differentially predicted the trait-state discrepancy: When controlling for self-concept in mathematics, females who endorsed the gender stereotype of math being a male domain more strongly overestimated their trait math anxiety as compared to their state anxiety whereas this effect was not significant for males. The present findings suggest that gender stereotype endorsement plays an important role in explaining gender differences in math anxiety above and beyond academic self-concept. Implications for future research and educational practice are discussed.

The Development of Math–Race Stereotypes: “They Say Chinese People Are the Best at Math”

Abstract: Sixty elementary-school children (9–10 years old) and 82 adolescents (12–13 years old) completed explicit and implicit measures of racial stereotypes about math. 60 Asian, 42 Latino, 21 White, 15 Black, and four multiracial students participated (42% boys). On the explicit measure, children as early as fifth grade reported being aware of the stereotype that Asians = math, but only adolescents personally endorsed this stereotype. On the implicit measure, there was significant evidence for racial stereotypes about math among adolescents. Across both ages, individual students’ explicit awareness of the stereotype was significantly correlated with their implicit stereotypes. Early adolescence is a key developmental window for discussing stereotypes before they become endorsed as personal beliefs.

Who stereotypes female candidates? Identifying individual differences in feminine stereotype reliance

Abstract: Increasing numbers of women are running for political office at the local, state, and national levels. Existing research offers unclear conclusions about whether feminine stereotypes are an electoral constraint for female candidates. An underlying assumption in this scholarship is that all types of individuals rely on similar processes to form electoral assessments of female candidates. This study tests the assumption of equitable stereotype reliance across individuals. I integrate theories from psychology about which types of individuals are most likely to use stereotypes to judge others, and consider how these determinants operate in a political context. I argue that whether an individual relies on feminine stereotypes to evaluate a female candidate depends on characteristics such as attention to politics, partisanship, and other relevant demographic characteristics. An original survey experiment identifies how individual characteristics affect whether a voter turns to feminine stereotypes when a woman ...

Perception of students' intelligence malleability and potential for future success: Unfavourable beliefs towards girls.

Abstract: Background Endorsing an entity theory of intelligence has negative effects on students’ academic trajectories. Research focused on students’ personal theories of intelligence has shown that girls are more likely than boys to hold an entity theory of intelligence. However, no study has examined the possibility of a gender stereotype basis for this belief. Aims We examined whether secondary school students are knowledgeable about others’ beliefs describing female students’ intelligence as less malleable than male students’ intelligence. Sample and method A sample of 85 French ninth graders were asked to rate to what extent others perceived: (1) female or male students’ intelligence as malleable and fixed; (2) female or male students as making efforts for their current achievement; and (3) female or male students as having potential for future success. Results Participants reported that others perceived girls’ intelligence as less malleable than boys’ intelligence. Moreover, the relationship between current efforts and potential for future achievement depended on the target's gender. The more hardworking a female student was perceived to be in school, the less she was considered to have potential to succeed in the future, whereas such a link was not observed for a male student. Conclusions Secondary school students seem to be knowledgeable about a gender stereotype regarding intelligence and potential for academic success which is unfavourable for female students. Implications for students’ academic trajectories are discussed.

Untangling the relationship between gender and leadership

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this study is to empirically explore the perceptions of leader effectiveness and preference on gender and leadership style. Design/methodology/approach – The interaction between authoritarian and participative leadership style and gender roles was examined for effectiveness and preference using video samples of dramatized leaders. Findings – The results showed that although subjects found participatory leaders to be more effective and also preferred such a style over authoritarian leaders, male leaders were rated to be more effective and more preferred over female leaders. Women leaders who go against their gender stereotype were perceived as even less effective and less preferred than male leaders who exhibited the same style that was identified as a more masculine style. Research limitations/implications – The results suggest that women leaders continue to face challenges overcoming both sexual bias and stereotypes. Women leaders, regardless of style, face an uphill battle in terms of perceptions of effectiveness and preference regardless of who their followers might be. In addition, women leaders who go against the typical gender stereotype might be penalized even more. Practical implications – Despite making progress on gender equity, the study demonstrated the continuing existence of sexual stereotyping and bias in people’s perceptions, even with “younger” subjects. Thus, we need to maintain our focus on actively changing the rules of the workplace (e.g. a recent Harvard Business School experiment) and changing the status quo. Until we level the playing field, we need to continue to play an active role in creating an organizational culture and shaping an environment that is fair and equitable. Originality/value – This paper highlights the current status of gender bias and stereotyping using an innovative methodology of video case studies. The results also highlight the persistence of gender bias and stereotype even in a “neutral” setting with the younger subjects. In addition, the paper empirically demonstrates the double standards women often face in the workplace. Women leaders have often been expected to demonstrate more masculine traits at workplace (as exhibited by the authoritarian style), but when they do, they are penalized for acting out of their gender role.

Law & Disorder: The Portrayal of Mental Illness in U.S. Crime Dramas

Abstract: A quantitative content analysis examined stereotypes and counter-stereotypes concerning mental illness in crime-based fictional television programs aired on U.S. television between 2010 and 2013. Coders rated 65 randomly selected television episodes and 983 characters for stereotypes and counter-stereotypes related to mental illness. Characters labeled as having mental illness demonstrated greater likelihood of committing crimes and violence than the remaining population of characters, perpetuating stereotypes. They also stood greater chance of being victimized by crime, another stereotype. Nevertheless, counter-stereotypes related to social standing (including the presence of family and friends) also emerged in the television content. The authors discuss how stereotypes in television content might contribute to the stigmatization of mental illness.

What is a Stereotype? What is Stereotyping?

Abstract: If someone says, “Asians are good at math” or “women are empathetic,” I might interject, “you're stereotyping” in order to convey my disapproval of their utterance. But why is stereotyping wrong? Before we can answer this question, we must better understand what stereotypes are and what stereotyping is. In this essay, I develop what I call the descriptive view of stereotypes and stereotyping. This view is assumed in much of the psychological and philosophical literature on implicit bias and stereotyping, yet it has not been sufficiently defended. The main objection to the descriptive view is that it fails to include the common-sense idea that stereotyping is always objectionable. I argue that this is actually a benefit of the view. In the essay's final part, I put forward two hypotheses that would validate the claim that stereotyping is always morally or epistemically wrong. If these hypotheses are false—which is very likely—we have little reason to build moral or epistemic defect into the very idea of a stereotype. Moreover, we must abandon the seemingly attractive claim that judging individuals based on group membership is intrinsically wrong.

Effects of Long-Term Exposure to News Stereotypes on Implicit and Explicit Attitudes

Abstract: A substantial body of research suggests that some news media outlets depict certain social groups stereotypically. We hypothesize that long-term exposure to such news influences viewers’ automatically activated gut feelings (i.e., implicit attitudes) toward this social group , which, in turn, may be used as a basis for overtly expressed evaluations (i.e., explicit attitudes). This prediction was investigated in three empirical studies in two cultural contexts. In the United States and Austria, results suggest that regular exposure to stereotypical news coverage creates negative implicit attitudes, which, in turn, alter explicit attitudes. A better understanding of the news stereotype effects will allow us to develop strategies to reduce prejudice, which may contribute to the improvement of a humane and open society.

Dialect and Influences on the Academic Experiences of College Students

Abstract: The dialects that college students speak represent a type of diversity that can influence many elements of their experiences in college, including academic experiences. In this study, we examined the influence of speaking a stigmatized dialect on academic experiences for White and African American students (both male and female) from rural Southern Appalachia attending a large research institution in the urban South. This qualitative study was aided by quantitative sociolinguistic methods used to identify and describe students’ speech patterns in order to better understand the influence that students perceived their dialect to have on academic experiences. Findings suggest that for more vernacular students, dialect can influence participation in class, degree of comfort in course, perceived academic challenges, and for some, their beliefs about whether or not others perceive them as intelligent or scholarly based on their speech. This study has implications for the consideration of language diversity in fostering welcoming academic environments and in the role of language discrimination and stereotype threat/stereotype management.

The Sexualized Girl: A Within-Gender Stereotype among Elementary School Children.

Abstract: Two studies (conducted in 2013) examined whether elementary-aged children endorse a within-gender stereotype about sexualized girls. In Study 1, children (N = 208) ages 6–11 rated sexualized girls as more popular but less intelligent, athletic, and nice compared to nonsexualized girls. These distinctions were stronger for girls and older children, and in accordance with our developmental intergroup theoretical framework, were related to children's cognitive development and media exposure. Study 2 (N = 155) replicated the previous findings using more ecologically valid and realistic images of girls and further explored individual differences in the endorsement of the sexualized girl stereotype. Additional results indicated that the belief that girls should be appearance focused predicted their endorsement of the sexualized girl stereotype.

Counter-stereotypical pictures as a strategy for overcoming spontaneous gender stereotypes

Abstract: The present research investigated the use of counter-stereotypical pictures as a strategy for overcoming spontaneous gender stereotypes when certain social role nouns and professional terms are read. Across two experiments, participants completed a judgment task in which they were presented with word pairs comprised of a role noun with a stereotypical gender bias (e.g., beautician) and a kinship term with definitional gender (e.g., brother). Their task was to quickly decide whether or not both terms could refer to one person. In each experiment they completed two blocks of such judgment trials separated by a training session in which they were presented with pictures of people working in gender counter-stereotypical (Experiment 1) or gender stereotypical roles (Experiment 2). To ensure participants were focused on the pictures, they were also required to answer four questions on each one relating to the character’s leisure activities, earnings, job satisfaction, and personal life. Accuracy of judgments to stereotype incongruent pairings was found to improve significantly across blocks when participants were exposed to counter-stereotype images (9.87%) as opposed to stereotypical images (0.12%), while response times decreased significantly across blocks in both studies. It is concluded that exposure to counter-stereotypical pictures is a valuable strategy for overcoming spontaneous gender stereotype biases in the short term.

Nurturing Gender Stereotypes in the Face of Experience: A Study of Leader Gender, Leadership Style, and Satisfaction

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Stereotypes are generally defined as qualities or traits assigned to certain groups on the basis of their race, sex, nationality, age, religion or other characteristics. These qualities are generalizations given to the entire group even though they may not describe all the members of that specific group. In our society, stereotypes are almost always perceived as negative because they can lead to discrimination and they reduce the amount of individuality amongst different people. Although there is much literature that warns against the use of stereotypes, the act of stereotyping is very common (Northouse, 2007; Adams & Yoder, 1985). In this paper we examine the role of gender or sex role stereotypes as they relate to leadership. We also investigate whether men or women leaders actually fall into their gender stereotype. We explore differences in male and female leaders with an emphasis on their level of concern for production and their level of concern for people. STEREOTYPES Northouse (2007) explains stereotypes as cognitive shortcuts that people use to process information about specific groups. Stereotypes usually come from historical or cultural norms that suggest specific groups of people are naturally prone to or biologically made to act a certain way. However, stereotypes can change over time with shifts in a society's culture. As researchers point out, the amount of women in leadership positions, at least at the supervisory and middle management level, have been increasing over the past half century (Duehr & Bono, 2006; Eagly & Karau, 2002). A cultural shift like this may act as a catalyst to change the stereotype assigned to a certain group (Koenig et al., 2011). Stereotypes can also come from other factors such as experience, mass media, and even socioeconomic status (Carpenter, 2012; Krieglmeyer & Sherman, 2012). If an individual has a specific experience with a certain group, that experience can serve as a memory to form a stereotype about another member of the same group later. For example, say a man who continually struggles in math finds a tutor that explains everything so that the individual understands and the tutor seems especially skilled in this subject. If this particular tutor is a Hispanic woman, the individual may use this memory of the tutor when he encounters other Hispanic women and assume that they are also good at math. Krieglmeyer and Sherman (2012) suggest that encountering a member of a specific group is the most typical method in which stereotypes are activated. However, stereotypes can be formed in other ways, such as the constant use of them in mass media. In an article entitled "Construction of the Crack Mother Icon," Carpenter (2012) examines the use of the American mass media in creating a distorted image for African American Women as crack addicted mothers. She states that "audiences perceive extreme or distorted visual images as realistic if they are familiar" (Carpenter, 2012, p.265). A specific example she states are the characters of Jezebel in the film Birth of a Nation and Sapphire Stevens in the Amos n' Andy minstrel style radio show. Both of these characters, played by African American actresses, are promiscuous, overbearing, angry women (Carpenter, 2012). She explains the progression of this stereotypical image in film and advertisements. When people continually see the same types of people in the same roles throughout the media, they begin to create a stereotype for these people. GENDER STEREOTYPES The term gender is frequently thought to be interchangeable with the term sex. However, there is a significant difference in these two terms. According to the World Health Organization ([WHO] 2013), the term gender refers to "the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women," while the explanation of the term sex is "the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women. …

Moderating the stereotypical views of health and social care students: the role of interprofessional education

Abstract: The potential of interprofessional education (IPE) to influence the perceptions and attitudes of health and social care professionals towards their colleagues in other disciplines is well recognized. However, empirical evidence for the positive impact of IPE on stereotypical beliefs has been limited. We report the findings of a pioneering, large scale study designed to assess the influence of IPE on these beliefs. A pre-test, post-test, quasi experimental design compared students' stereotypical views at the beginning and end of undergraduate studies. 580 students from 10 health and social care professional groups undertook assessed IPE modules over 3 years (the intervention group). Baseline and post-course stereotype ratings were compared with those of 672 students in a comparison group, not exposed to IPE modules. Baseline stereotype profiles showed clear variations in the way different professions were perceived, indicating stereotypical beliefs about the characteristics of each profession. Rating patterns were similar for intervention and comparison groups. At graduation, only minor changes were observed in the overall rating patterns for both groups. However, more ratings had decreased in the intervention group than the comparison group, suggesting that IPE may play a role in moderating more extreme stereotyping of colleagues in other professions.

Using Toronto to Explore Three Suburban Stereotypes, and Vice Versa:

Abstract: Urbanists share and reproduce three stereotypes about North American suburbs. First, many invoke a cliched ideal: the desire to enjoy quiet privacy in a low-density residential environment near the urban fringe. Second, they assume that most suburbs have actually conformed to this ideal. Third, academics and planners alike agree on a stereotypical judgment: suburbs are to be deplored. This synthetic essay argues that residential patterns in postwar Toronto never conformed to these stereotypes: especially since the 1970s it has harboured a competing, more urbane popular ideal; its suburbs have been socially and physically diverse; and, recognizing diversity, local urbanists have made varied judgments. Suburban diversity has become systematized since the 1970s, so that a new local stereotype has emerged: that of the declining inner suburb. Toronto's experience exemplifies that of one of the two main types of North American metro. It challenges stereotypes, while those stereotypes illuminate its particular c...

Positive Perception of Aging and Performance in a Memory Task: Compensating for Stereotype Threat?

Abstract: Background/Study Context: The aim of this research is to explore whether segments of seniors might be immune to aging stereotypes of the older adult group. Stereotype threat research indicates that older adults show low memory recall under conditions of stereotype threat. Stereotype internalization theory (Levy, 2009) predicts that a positive perception of aging has favorable effects on the behavior and health of older people.Methods: A total of 112 older adult participants (62% women, aged 55 to 78) attending the University Programme for Older Adults were assigned to one of two conditions: stereotype threat condition and positive information condition. A control group was included from participants in the same program (n = 34; 61% women, aged 55 to 78). Individual differences in self-perception of aging were considered as continuous variable.Results: Participants with better self-perception of aging showed better memory performance than those with poorer self-perception of aging in the stereotype threat ...

Model Minority Myth

Abstract: The model minority myth suggests that all Asian Americans achieve universal and unparalleled academic and occupational success. The model minority stereotype is a problematic construction of Asian Americans as a monolithic, homogenous group. It serves to discount the challenges of other minority groups, it masks the serious inequities within a vastly diverse population, and it renders that population invisible in discussions carried out in public policy, politics, health, education, and other arenas. For these reasons, Asian American scholars and community members are engaged in ongoing efforts to legitimize the struggles of underrepresented ethnic groups within the Asian American category. However, the myth continues to persist and pervades popular public perceptions. Keywords: race and ethnicity; racism; sociology of culture and media; stereotyping; stratification and inequality

"Women Are Better Than Men" - Public Beliefs on Gender Differences and Other Aspects in Multitasking.

Abstract: Reports in public media suggest the existence of a stereotype that women are better at multitasking than men. The present online survey aimed at supporting this incidental observation by empirical data. For this, 488 participants from various ethnic backgrounds (US, UK, Germany, the Netherlands, Turkey, and others) filled out a self-developed online-questionnaire. Results showed that overall more than 50% of the participants believed in gender differences in multitasking abilities. Of those who believed in gender differences, a majority of 80% believed that women were better at multitasking. The main reasons for this were believed to be an evolutionary advantage and more multitasking practice in women, mainly due to managing children and household and/or family and job. Findings were consistent across the different countries, thus supporting the existence of a widespread gender stereotype that women are better at multitasking than men. Further questionnaire results provided information about the participants’ self-rated own multitasking abilities, and how they conceived multitasking activities such as childcare, phoning while driving, and office work.