Showing papers in "Journal of Organizational Behavior in 1993"

The proactive component of organizational behavior: A measure and correlates

Abstract: This study investigated a personal disposition toward proactive behavior, defined as the relatively stable tendency to effect environmental change. We developed an initial scale to assess the construct and administered it to a sample of 282 undergraduates. Factor analysis led to a revised, unidimensional scale with sound psychometric properties. A second sample of 130 undergraduate students was used to determine the relationships between the proactive scale and the ’Big Five‘ personality domains: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. In a third sample of 148 MBA students, we assessed the proactive scale's relationships with three personality traits and three criterion measures. Consistent with hypotheses, scores on the proactive scale correlated with need for achievement, need for dominance, and independent measures of the nature of subjects' extracurricular and civic activities, the nature of their major personal achievements, and peer nominations of transformational leaders. We discuss the potential of the proactive construct to enhance our understanding of, and ability to predict, a wide range of behaviors.

Dispositional affectivity as a predictor of work attitudes and job performance

Abstract: Previous research has shown that dispositional negative affect (NA) is associated with lower levels of job satisfaction. Little research has been conducted, however, on other organizational implications of negative affect or on the potential effects of dispositional positive affect (PA). The present studies examined the relationship of both positive and negative affectivity to organizational commitment, turnover intentions, global job satisfaction and performance. In the first study both NA and PA were associated with organizational commitment and turnover intentions. Additionally, commitment mediated the relationship between dispositional affectivity and turnover. Finally, PA and tenure interacted to predict job performance, such that PA and job performance were positively related, but only for high tenure employees. In Study 2 the findings were generally similar, but not identical. Both NA and PA were related to global job satisfaction and turnover intentions. However, only PA was related to affective organizational commitment. Moreover, both job satisfaction and affective commitment mediated the relationship between dispositional affectivity and turnover intentions. Finally, unlike Study 1, PA was not related to job performance. Rather, NA and tenure interacted such that when individuals were lower in tenure, NA was negatively related to performance.

A further examination of managerial burnout: Toward an integrated model

Abstract: A model of managerial burnout was examined among 148 human service supervisors and managers. The findings suggest that emotional exhaustion plays a central mediating role in the burnout process. Social support and direct control were associated with exhaustion through role stress. Job and life satisfaction, and time spent with clients and subordinates were also related to exhaustion. In turn, exhaustion was related to depersonalization, professional commitment, and turnover intentions. An expected reciprocal relation between exhaustion and helplessness was not found, as the former had only a weak impact on the latter. Implications for stress coping are discussed.

Profiles of commitment: An empirical test

Abstract: Prior research has demonstrated the importance of distinguishing among foci and bases of commitment. Foci of commitment are the individuals and groups to whom an employee is attached, and bases of commitment are the motives engendering attachment. This study uses distinctions among foci and bases of commitment to develop four profiles of commitment, and examines the extent to which differences in these patterns predict other variables. Cluster analysis of 440 employees suggests the following profiles: (1) The Locally Committed (employees who are attached to their supervisor and work group), (2) the Globally Committed (who are attached to top management and the organization), (3) the Committed (who are attached to both local and global foci), and (4) the Uncommitted (who are attached to neither local nor global foci). The profiles are differentially related to intent to quit, job satisfaction, prosocial organizational behaviors, and certain demographic and contextual variables. Implications of these findings for theory and practice are discussed.

The construct validity of two burnout measures

Abstract: The present study was carried out among a sample of 667 Dutch nurses and assesses three aspects of the construct validity of the two most widely used self-report burnout questionnaires: The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) and the Burnout Measure (BM) Although the factorial validity of the three-dimensional structure of the MBI was convincingly demonstrated by confirmatory factor analysis with LISREL, four weak and ambiguous items were identified Regarding the BM, some doubts have arisen about its one-dimensionality The congruent validity of the questionnaires was well established: They both refer to the core element of the burnout syndrome (ie exhaustion) Moreover, linear structural analyses suggested that burnout is a two multi-dimensional construct consisting of an affective component (ie exhaustion) and an attitudinal component (ie a negative attitude towards recipients and towards one's job performance) However, the discriminant validity of the first component is rather poor since it considerably overlaps with self-reported somatic complaints and psychological strain It is concluded that the MBI can be employed as a reliable and valid multi-dimensional indicator of burnout in professionals who work with people The BM assesses the non-specific affective component of burnout (ie exhaustion) and should therefore be supplemented by a scale that measures the attitudinal component of the syndrome

Assessing diversity climate: A field study of reactions to employer efforts to promote diversity

Abstract: Based on intergroup theory, this study examined relationships among group characteristics (racioethnicity, gender, and level), contextual organizational unit characteristics (gender and racioethnic heterogeneity, resource support for women and racioethnic minorities) and perceptions of diversity climate by faculty at a large university. Compared to white men, white women and racioethnic minorities placed greater value on employer efforts to promote diversity, and held more favorable attitudes about the qualifications of women and racioethnic minorities. The study found that group rather than contextual organizational unit characteristics were more strongly related to diversity climate. However, the organizational unit characteristic, gender heterogeneity, was significantly related to valuing diversity. The greater the ratio of women in a unit, regardless of the respondents' gender, racioethnicity or level, the more favorable diversity activities were viewed. In addition, units whose allocation of resources to racioethnic minorities were perceived as insufficient by respondents were more likely to have members who valued diversity and held favorable perceptions toward the qualifications of racioethnic minorities. Implications for organizations and future research are offered.

Gendering organizational analysis

Abstract: Introduction PART ONE: ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS: A CRITIQUE Differential Recruitment and Control - Joan Acker and Donald R Van Houten The Sex Structuring of Organizations Room For Women - Peta Tancred-Sheriff and E Jane Campbell A Case Study in the Sociology of Organizations Gender and Organizations - Jeff Hearn and P Wendy Parkin A Selective Review and a Critique of a Neglected Area PART TWO: TOWARDS FEMINISM AS RADICAL ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS Sex and Organizational Analysis - Gibson Burrell Organization, Gender and Culture - Albert J Mills A Feminist Perspective on State Bureaucracy - Judith Grant and Peta Tancred-Sheriff PART THREE: FROM THEORY TO APPLICATION: EXPLORATIONS IN FEMINIST ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS Sex Ratios, Sex Role Spillover and Sex at Work - Barbara A Gutek and Aaron Groff Cohen A Comparison of Men's and Women's Experiences Women Managers' Perceptions of Gender and Organizational Life - Deborah Sheppard 'The Clerking Sisterhood' - Susan Porter Benson Rationalization and the Work Culture of Saleswomen in American Department Stores 1890-1960 Merit and Gender - Clare Burton Organizations and the Mobilization of Masculine Bias PART FOUR: CONTEMPORARY VOICES An/Other Silent Voice? - Marta B Calas Representing 'Hispanic Women' in Organizational Texts Using the 'F' Word - Marta B Calas and Linda Smircich Feminist Theories and the Social Consequences of Organizational Research Re-Visioning Women Managers' Lives - Ella Louise Bell and Stella Nkomo Gendering Organizational Theory - Joan Acker

Coping with job insecurity: How does personality make a difference?

Abstract: Reversing a long-standing tradition of neglect, occupational stress researchers have recently rediscovered the importance of personality disposition in understanding the transformation of stresses into strains and strains into symptoms. Two recent studies of job insecurity in our laboratory provided a fortuitous opportunity to explore the extent of this influence and the mechanisms by which it operates. The most important of our findings is that positive personality attributes impact as strongly on mental health as does negative personality disposition, albeit in the opposite direction. Thus, personality can cushion, as well as aggravate, the impact of occupational stress.

A test and refinement of the equity sensitivity construct

Abstract: This paper reports results from two studies that test a refinement of the equity sensitivity construct first in an experimental setting and second in a field setting Results from Study 1 show that benevolents express tolerance for both overreward and underreward relative to entitleds and equity sensitives and that benevolents report relatively high levels of satisfaction regardless of reward condition Study 1 results also show that manipulation of outcomes produce a more dramatic effect on satisfaction than does manipulation of inputs Results from Study 2 reveal significantly different exchange ideologies for benevolents and entitleds and show that entitleds place more importance on pay whereas benevolents place more importance on the work itself For both benevolents and entitleds, there is a positive correlation between assessments of distributive justice and job satisfaction Implication of the findings both for equity theory research and the practice of management are discussed

Pregnancy as a source of bias in performance appraisals

Abstract: Notwithstanding recent gains, women have still not achieved parity with men in the workplace. This is further complicated by common negative images of pregnant women (Taylor and Langer, 1977). The present study investigated (1) stereotypes about pregnant working women, and (2) the effect of an employee's pregnancy on performance evaluation. In the first study, subjects' attitudes about pregnant employees were assessed via questionnaire. Substantial negative stereotyping was found to exist, especially among males. In Study 2, subjects viewed videotapes of either a pregnant or a non-pregnant women doing assessment-center-type tasks and were asked to evaluate her performance. When the employee was pregnant, she was consistently rated lower compared to when she was non-pregnant. A main effect of rater sex and a rater sex by pregnancy condition interaction were found, indicating that males assigned lower ratings than females and were also more negatively affected by the pregnancy condition. Implications for organizational policy regarding employee pregnancy and performance appraisal systems are discussed.

A refutation of Karasek's demand – discretion model of occupational stress with a range of dependent measures.

Abstract: Summary Karasek's (1979) demand-discretion model of occupational stress has been highly influential but has been criticized as confounding social class variables (Payne and Fletcher, 1983), ignoring the curvilinearity of relationships (Warr, 1991), and because it has inconsistently predicted heart disease (Ganster and Fusilier, 1989). The present study examines the ability of the model to predict raised blood pressure (a risk factor in the development of CHD), anxiety, depression, job and life satisfaction, in a large heterogeneous sample of over 3000 people. It examines the predictability of the model for men and women, taking occupational classification (manual and non-manual workers) into account, to allow some control over social class confounding. It also examines nonlinear relationships in the data. The study showed that demands and discretion do separately predict psychological strain, job and life satisfaction, though they account for a very small percentage of the variance. There was no evidence of interactive effects which are central to the model. Where the model was able to predict blood pressure, relationships were consistently in the opposite direction to that hypothesized. There was also little evidence of curvilinear relationships. Interpersonal support was found to add significantly to the predictability of the dependent variables. The findings cast doubt on Karasek's model and suggest that emphasis should be shifted to those models which are more encompassing of support factors.

Self-monitoring and turnover: The impact of personality on intent to leave

Abstract: Employee turnover is a topic of considerable interest within most organizations Despite years of research, the antecedents of turnover remain elusive Traditionally, studies have focused on job satisfaction and organizational commitment as the primary precursors of voluntary (as distinguished from involuntary) turnover Increasingly, however, researchers have suggested investigating possible personality variables that may help explain even more variance in turnover The social psychological construct of self-monitoring was found to be such a variable After the traditional predictors of satisfaction and commitment had been entered, self-monitoring accounted for previously unexplained variance in turnover intentions Furthermore, the pattern of relationships among the variables of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions differed for high and low self-monitors Specifically, commitment was a better indicator of intent to leave among low self-monitors but job satisfaction showed a stronger relationship among high self-monitors Implications for the organization and suggestions for further research are discussed

Relationship of work-family conflict, gender, and alcohol expectancies to alcohol use/abuse

Abstract: Numerous studies have documented a positive relationship between work-family conflict and both psychological distress and somatic symptoms. Little research, however, has explored the relationship of work-family conflict to alcohol use/abuse. Consequently, this study investigated the relationship of work-family conflict to several indicators of abusive alcohol consumption. In addition, the moderating influence of gender and tension-reduction expectancies was examined. Data were obtained through household interviews with a random sample of 473 employed adults. As hypothesized, work-family conflict was positively related to abusive alcohol consumption. In addition, there was strong support for the moderating influence of tension-reduction expectancies. As anticipated, the positive relationship between work-family conflict and abusive alcohol consumption was found almost exclusively among individuals who believe that alcohol use promotes relaxation and tension reduction. In contrast, the hypothesis that gender moderates the relationship between work-family conflict and alcohol use/abuse was not supported. Implications for future research and intervention efforts aimed at reducing alcohol abuse in the workforce are discussed.

The impact of feedback and self-efficacy on performance in training.

Abstract: This field experiment examined the main and interactive effects of self-efficacy and feedback (i.e. the use of feedback versus no feedback) on performance in a speed reading class. Results showed that the provision of feedback was beneficial to the performance of all subjects, however as subject self-efficacy increased, the beneficial effects of feedback to the subject's performance also increased. Subjects who received feedback on their performance experienced significantly greater increases in self-efficacy than subjects who received no feedback. The more positive the performance feedback received, the greater the increase in individual self-efficacy. The implications of these results for training programs are discussed.

A test of reciprocal causality for absenteeism

Abstract: The aim of the study was to test reciprocal causality hypotheses for absence, investigating self‐ and supervisor‐attitudes and behaviors as consequences, as well as antecedents of absence. Reciprocal relationships were proposed between absence and each of job satisfaction, performance, training achievement, and supervisory style. Questionnaire data on job satisfaction and supervisory style and organizational data on employee performance and absence were collected at time 1 from the 262 apprentices of an electricity authority and a year later at time 2 from the 241 then employed apprentices. The repeated data collection (n = 200) consisted of the time 1 first, second and third year apprentices, who became the second, third and fourth years at time 2. Causal tests indicated that uncertified frequency absence and time lost, but not certified absence, were more likely to lead to lower job satisfaction, training achievement, and supervisor‐rated performance and attendance than the reverse. Supervisory style, especially support, led to less uncertified but not certified absence. Absence did not influence supervisory style. The reasons for the direction of the significant causal effects and the alternative explanations for such effects were discussed.

Willingness to accept mobility opportunities: Destination makes a difference

Abstract: Previous research on employee willingness to accept mobility opportunities involving geographic relocation has generally not specified characteristics of potential destination communities. However, studies of employee adjustment following relocation suggest that community characteristics are critical to employee satisfaction. In order to better understand the factors that influence employees' acceptance of mobility opportunities, we investigated differences in both levels and antecedents of willingness to accept mobility opportunities involving relocation between similar communities and relocation between dissimilar communities. Results suggest that employees were particularly reluctant to accept moves between dissimilar communities, and that the role of career factors, community attachment, and location preferences as antecedents varied depending on the specific nature of the mobility opportunity. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Attributional conflict between managers and subordinates: An investigation of leader-member exchange effects

Abstract: The present study investigated the discrepancies, or conflict, between the attributions of leaders and members as a function of LMX quality and explored the relation between attributional conflict and subordinate job satisfaction, perceptions of equity, and turnover intentions. Data for the study were provided by 141 supervisor-subordinate dyads from the managerial ranks of a large manufacturing organization. Both parties of the dyad made attributions for subordinate loyalty, affect, and contributions, member behaviors identified as critical in previous LMX research. Limited support emerged for the hypothesis that attributional conflict would be greater in dyads where subordinates reported lower rather than higher LMX quality. Findings suggested that attributional discrepencies are due, in part, to the tendency of leaders to make more favorable attributions for subordinates reporting higher LMX quality than for subordinates reporting lower LMX quality. Results also revealed that, while attributional conflict was negatively related to subordinate satisfaction and perceptions of equity and positively related to turnover intentions, attributional conflict did not predict subordinate work outcomes when the effects of LMX quality were controlled. Implications of these findings were discussed.

Pulling up roots in the 1990s: Who's willing to relocate?

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to develop a profile of employees in Fortune 500 companies who are willing to relocate. The profile was developed on a demographically diverse random sample of 827 employees from 20 Fortune 500 corporations, all of whom had moved at least once for their current employer. Employees who were most willing to relocate were younger, their incomes were lower, their career ambitions higher, and their spouses more willing than those who were less willing to relocate. These employees could be found in sales/marketing and production functions. Their attitudes toward moving were also favorable. The single most important predictor of willingness to relocate was spouse willingness to relocate. This result suggests strongly that in the 1990s, corporations are going to have to address the concerns of spouses, if married employees are going to remain mobile. The study also cautions corporations about the shortsightedness of thinking of spouse and dual career issues as ’women's issues‘ and assuming that females and minorities are unwilling to relocate.

Individual characteristics, work perceptions, and affective reactions influences on differentiated absence criteria

Abstract: The present study provides support for the utility of studying absence as a multi-dimensional criterion Survey responses were collected from 194 bus drivers and paired with categorized archival absences Seven absence indices were created and linked with three categories of predictors: (1) affective reactions to the work environment; (2) work-related perceptions; and (3) individual resource characteristis The relationships between the multiple absence criteria and the three sets of predictors were examined both separately and combined using part canonical, and canonical correlation analyses Affective responses fully mediated the influence of work perceptions on absence, and partially mediated the influence of individual resource variables Redundancy coefficients and a rotated structure matrix were employed to identify two significant dimensions labeled, nonwork obligations and stress reactions, that linked the combined predictor sets with the set of absence measures Together these dimensions accounted for 15 per cent of the variance in absence, with predictors differing in their explanatory power Implications for the management of employee absence programs were discussed

How do I like thee? Let me appraise the ways

Abstract: This study examined the effect of leader-member exchange (LMX) on the relationship between employee performance (measured objectively) and the supervisor's rating of that performance. To date, no field study has tested whether high and low LMX members receive differential ratings based on their LMX relationship, beyond their actual performance. Data were collected from employees (directory assistants, cable technicians, and dispatch clerks) and their supervisors in a telephone company. The objective measures of performance which were available for these jobs were related to supervisory ratings of performance for high and low LMX employees. The results showed that poorly performing high LMX employees were given high performance ratings, regardless of their actual performance. The ratings of low LMX employees were consistent with their actual performance. The effect of LMX was more pronounced with more general task and relationship rating categories. Alternative explanations of the results, as well as the theoretical and practical implications for performance appraisal and LMX research, were discussed.

Industrial relations, worksite stress reduction, and employee well-being: A participatory action research investigation.

Abstract: The workplace has become the locus of many stress management and stress reduction interventions. However, little attention has focused on how worksite factors affect the implementation and impact of such interventions. In this paper, we investigate the effect of new versus traditional industrial relations practices on the impact of a worksite stress reduction program in a manufacturing setting. More specifically, a participatory action research (PAR) stress project is described and evaluated in two different labor–management relations contexts. One organization is characterized by the emerging ’new‘ industrial relations system where labor–management relations incorporate elements of joint problem-solving. The other organization has a more traditional approach where labor–management relations are formally adversarial. Results indicate that the labor–management relations context did influence the impact of the stress project. Involvement in the PAR stress project enhanced employee participation in decision-making in both contexts. However, involvement in the stress project enhanced employees' perceptions of the climate for participation only in the organization with more cooperative industrial relations. Increases in coworker support and decreases in depressive symptoms were associated with involvement in the PAR stress project in the organization with more adversarial industrial relations.

A cross-cultural application of a career planning model

Abstract: Data obtained from a sample of technical, professional and administrative/managerial employees (N = 214) in Singapore were used to examine the cross-cultural generalizability of a version of Gould's career planning model. The recursive model depicts the mechanisms through which career planning affects career behavior (career strategy) and attitudes (career satisfaction, self-esteem at work and career commitment) and thereby reinforce the career planning function. Path analysis results of the four structural equations provided modest support for the hypothesized relations. In addition to the hypothesized relations, the results revealed some significant direct paths that were not hypothesized. Limitations of the study, implications of the findings and a direction for future studies are discussed.

The effects of Type A behavior dimensions and optimism on coping strategy, health, and performance.

Abstract: Type A behavior dimensions and optimism were examined as predictors of health and performance. In addition, this research also explored the ways that Type As and optimists cope with stressful situations. The achievement striving dimension of the Type A behavior pattern and optimism were positively related to class performance, while the anger/hostility dimension was positively related to the health symptom of anxiety. Optimism, on the other hand, was negatively related to anxiety. The interaction of achievement striving and optimism was negatively related to anxiety. Additionally, while achievement striving was positively related to problem-focused coping, irritability showed a negative association with problem-focused coping strategy. The results of this study provide insights for both individuals and organizations regarding how to cope with daily stresses in order to lower health risks and improve performance.

Status inconsistency in organizations: From social hierarchy to stress

Abstract: This paper adopts the concept of status inconsistency from the wider sociological literature in order to explain one of the social psychological processes possibly underlying the linkage between organizational demography and occupational stress. In doing so, we review the methodological and theoretical difficulties that arise in applying status inconsistency to an organizational setting. After explicitly discussing our assumptions, we develop out of the literature a series of propositions explicating the nature of the relationships between demography, status, status inconsistency and occupational stress. In offering these propositions we not only attempt to show how status inconsistency may be used to explain many of the empirical relations found to exist between demography and occupational stress, but also try to show the potential value of the status inconsistency concept as both an independent and dependent variable in general organizational research.

Effects of new technologies with special regard for the implementation process per se

Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the implementation process to new technologies [e.g. drawing board/computer-aided design (CAD), microfiche/electronic data processing] on the employees concerned. Since the emphasis of the study lay in the intrinsic relationship of the implementation process with stress reactions, the parameters were measured at the place of work in a longitudinal design. Employees (n = 279) in seven companies (work fields: CAD, clerical work, telephone information desk) were tested three times — two months prior to, during, and 12 months after implementation. Aspects of strain and satisfaction were taken into account at each measurement phase. A special test-instrument was designed to describe the ’style of implementation‘ (manner in which implementation took place) particular to each company. The level of strain was found to increase during the implementation process. The amount of this increase was found to correlate with the company's style of implementation as well as with the type of the individual's work activity. The highest levels were found among those employees little included in the implementation process and those whose work is described as monotonous.

The measurement properties of the role conflict and role ambiguity scales: A review and extension of the empirical research

Abstract: The measurement properties of the Rizzo, House and Lirtzman (1970) role conflict and role ambiguity scales have been debated in the research literature for several years. The criticisms are that the scales do not measure separate constructs and are contaminated by method variance. However, some researchers have presented evidence supporting the scales' continued use as independent measures. We attempted to clarify the running debate by re-examining these issues and presenting additional data, which focused on the item level of analysis. Using confirmatory factor analyses and item statistics, we show discriminant validity for the role conflict and ambiguity scales across three diverse samples of workers. We also contend that the evidence for method bias is not as strong as previously argued.

The feedback environment: An exploratory study of cue use

Abstract: This paper examines individuals' theories about cue use in organizations — theories about which of the many cues available in an organization's feedback environment they should use to guide their behavior. It also investigates how these theories vary with increasing organizational experience. The research assesses individual's implicit theories regarding cue use using both open- and closed-ended data collection methods. Results suggest that, regardless of experience, individuals place the most importance on cues from the company and their supervisors. Peer feedback and self-observations were seen as much less important. These results are interesting in light of previous studies showing that the self was the most available, and the organization the least available, source of feedback. With experience, managers appear to learn to emphasize negative over positive feedback, especially from superiors, and to emphasize their peers' actions over their words when a negative message is being conveyed.

On the efficacy of credibility intervals as indicators of moderator effects in meta-analytic research

Abstract: Researchers have suggested the use of credibility intervals for identifying moderator effects in meta-analysis. In the present study, the accuracy of decisions derived from credibility intervals was determined from Monte Carlo generated correlations based on two series of meta-analyses, one containing 20 studies and the other, 100 studies. Within each study, the responses of 100 subjects were simulated. Although in some marginal cases the accuracy measures (Type I error rate and power) from the credibility intervals were better than those derived from the SH-75 per cent and U rules, the former technique was generally found to be a poor indicator of heterogeneity or homogeneity. Finally, the concept of a large interval was discussed and a rule of thumb for using it to detect moderators was suggested.