Showing papers in "Journal of Organizational Behavior in 2013"

Greening organizations through leaders' influence on employees' pro-environmental behaviors

Abstract: Summary Climate change is a serious global issue that poses many risks to environmental and human systems. Although human activity is cited as the main cause of climate change and organizations significantly contribute to climate change, research that investigates workplace pro-environmental behaviors remains scarce. We develop and test a model that links environmentally-specific transformational leadership and leaders’ workplace pro-environmental behaviors to employees’ pro-environmental passion and behaviors. Structural equation modeling on data from 139subordinate–leaderdyads(Mages=37.42and40.17years,respectively)showedthatleaders’environmental descriptive norms predicted their environmentally-specific transformational leadership and their workplace pro-environmental behaviors, both of which predicted employees’ harmonious environmental passion. In turn, employees’ own harmonious environmental passion and their leaders’ workplace pro-environmental behaviors predicted their workplace pro-environmental behaviors. These findings show that leaders’environmental descriptive norms and the leadership and pro-environmental behaviors they enact play an important role in the greening of organizations. Conceptual and practical implications are discussed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A review of abusive supervision research

Abstract: This paper reviews studies concerned with abusive supervision and provides a constructive revision of Tepper’s 2007 model. As a result of our review of the recent research, we revised the 2007 Tepper model and added additional variables and casual paths to increase its explanatory potential. The model we propose distinguishes between abusive supervisory behavior and abusive supervisory perceptions, suggesting that each of these variables needs to be studied separately until we know more about how they are related. The revised model also explicitly recognizes possibilities for reverse causation and stresses the importance of subordinates’ individual differences such as attribution style, negative affectivity, and implicit work theories, which have the potential to account for significant variability in subordinates’ perceptions of abuse. Suggestions for future research based on the original relationships identified by the Tepper review as well as the variables and causal paths suggested in the revised model are provided.

Relationships between daily affect and pro‐environmental behavior at work: The moderating role of pro‐environmental attitude

Abstract: Research in organizational psychology has increasingly focused on understanding the determinants of "green" employee behavior. The present study used a daily diary design to investigate relationships between employees' daily affect, pro-environmental attitude, as well as daily task-related pro-environmental behavior (i.e., the extent to which employees complete required work tasks in environmentally friendly ways), and daily proactive pro-environmental behavior (i.e., the extent to which employees show personal initiative when acting in environmentally friendly ways at work). Fifty-six employees working in small businesses completed a baseline survey and two daily surveys over ten workdays. Daily unactivated positive affect and pro-environmental attitude positively predicted daily task-related pro-environmental behavior. In addition, daily activated positive affect positively predicted daily proactive pro-environmental behavior among employees with a less positive pro-environmental attitude but not among employees with a more positive pro-environmental attitude. These findings suggest that fostering pro-environmental attitudes and, to some extent, positive affect among employees could help organizations to promote pro-environmental behavior in the workplace.

Perceived organizational support and embeddedness as key mechanisms connecting socialization tactics to commitment and turnover among new employees

Abstract: Summary Retention of new hires is a critical issue for organizations. We propose that relationships are important mechanisms through which socialization tactics influence commitment and turnover. The key theoretical mechanisms connecting socialization tactics to turnover in our model are the extent to which newcomers perceive their relationship with the organization as supportive, caring, and entailing positive social exchanges and the extent to which newcomers become embedded within the organization. We collected longitudinal data from over 500 employees over the first year of employment. Consistent with our hypotheses, socialization tactics influence perceived organizational support (POS) and job embeddedness, and POS and embeddedness both relate to organizational commitment and voluntary turnover. Results support POS and embeddedness as relational mechanisms that bind employees to the organization as a result of socialization tactics. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Exploring the dark side of organizational citizenship behavior

Abstract: Summary In recent years, there has been increasing interest in positive organizational scholarship in general, including positive organizational behavior (POB) in particular. This work identifies organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) as a prototypical POB. Conceptualizing OCBs in this way is sensible in light of more than 30 years of research highlighting the desirable aspects of such behavior. At the same time, some researchers have raised questions about positive organizational scholarship and have called for a more balanced view of ostensibly positive behaviors. The purpose of this paper, then, is to take a more nuanced view of OCBs while highlighting the dark side of citizenship behavior. In doing so, we review conceptual and empirical work that has challenged the idea that OCBs are inherently positive. We also discuss research that seeks to develop a deeper understanding of the conditions under which OCB does more harm than good. Finally, important areas for future research and the practical realities facing scholars who seek to publish research investigating the dark side of citizenship are addressed as well. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Transformational leadership, relationship quality, and employee performance during continuous incremental organizational change

Abstract: Summary Although transformational leadership has been investigated in connection with change at higher levels of organizations, less is known about its “in-the-trenches” impact. We examined relations among transformational leadership, explicit change reactions (i.e., relationship quality), change frequency, and change consequences (i.e., task performance and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)) during continuous incremental organizational change at lower hierarchical levels. In a sample of 251 employees and their 78 managers, analyses revealed that the quality of relationships between leaders and employees mediated the influence of transformational leadership on employee task performance and OCB. We also found that change frequency moderated the positive association of relationship quality with task performance and OCB, such that associations were stronger when change frequency was high. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Environmental standards and labor productivity: Understanding the mechanisms that sustain sustainability

Abstract: Summary In the last decade, a rising number of firms have adopted voluntary international environmental management and product standards, such as the international ISO 14001 management standard or organic certification. Although emerging research analyzes the impact of these standards on environmental and financial performance, there is to our knowledge no empirical research on how they affect the productivity of employees. In this paper, we investigate the direct relationship between environmental standards and labor productivity, as well as two mediating mechanisms through which environmental standards influence labor productivity: employee training and enhanced interpersonal contacts within the firm. Our empirical results, based on a French employer–employee survey from 5220 firms, reveal that firms that have adopted environmental standards enjoy a one standard deviation higher labor productivity than firms that have not adopted such standards. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Employee silence motives: Investigation of dimensionality and development of measures

Abstract: Summary In four studies, I examine the motives for employee silence. In Study 1, I examine open-ended survey responses to determine the nature and scope of silence motives. Study 2 develops measures of these motives and explores their factor structure. Study 3 refines the measures and provides confirmatory evidence of factor structure. Study 4 examines relationships between the new measures and related factors (employee voice, psychological safety, neuroticism, extraversion). Results indicate that six dimensions of silence motives (ineffectual, relational, defensive, diffident, disengaged, and deviant) emerged from the data, which can be reliably measured and provide incremental value for understanding and assessing employee silence. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A meta‐analytic evaluation of diversity training outcomes

Abstract: Summary The purpose of this meta-analysis was to use theory and research on diversity, attitudes, and training to examine potential differential effects on affective-based, cognitive-based, and skill-based outcomes, to examine potential moderators of those effects with a focus on affective-based outcomes, and finally, to provide quantitative estimates of these posited relationships. Results from 65 studies (N=8465) revealed sizable effects on affective-based, cognitive-based, and skill-based outcomes as well as interesting boundary conditions for these effects on affective-based outcomes. This study provides practical value to human resources managers and trainers wishing to implement diversity training within organizations as well as interesting theoretical advances for researchers. Practitioners have quantitative evidence that diversity training changes affective-based, cognitive-based, and skill-based trainee outcomes. This study also supports and addresses future research needs. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Janus face of paternalistic leaders: Authoritarianism, benevolence, subordinates' organization‐based self‐esteem, and performance

Abstract: We investigated how the two components of paternalistic leadership, namely authoritarianism and benevolence, jointly influenced work performance through their impacts on organization-based self-esteem (OBSE). Using a sample of 686 supervisor-subordinate dyads collected from a manufacturing firm in the People's Republic of China, we found that OBSE mediated the negative relationship between authoritarian leadership on one hand and subordinate task performance and organizational citizenship behavior toward the organization (OCBO) on the other. We also found that the negative effect of authoritarian leadership on subordinate OBSE, task performance, and OCBO was weaker when supervisors exhibited higher levels of leader benevolence. Also, OBSE mediated the joint effect of authoritarian leadership and benevolent leadership on subordinate task performance and OCBO.

Changing behaviour: Increasing the effectiveness of workplace interventions in creating pro-environmental behaviour change

Abstract: There is a great deal of research outlining interventions to increase pro-environmental behaviour, many of which are aimed at employees. However, to date the results for these have not lived up to their initial promise. Instead of offering another intervention, we propose a model which identifies psychological conditions under which these interventions are most likely to succeed. Through the integration of previously separate literatures from experimental social psychology, organisational psychology, organisational behaviour and environmental psychology, we suggest that the degree to which the intervention-related goal is efficacious and attractive, self-concordant, in conflict with other goals, and perceived to be completed will affect the level and type of behaviour change. Our model aims to provide actionable knowledge that extends our understanding of the effectiveness of workplace interventions designed to increase green organisational behaviour.

Workaholism and daily recovery : a day reconstruction study of leisure activities

Abstract: This study among 85 individuals used a day reconstruction approach to examine whether workaholism moderates the relationship between daily activities during non-work time and daily well-being in the evening (evening happiness, momentary vigor before bedtime, and momentary recovery before bedtime). Specifically, it was hypothesized that daily work-related activities during the evening have a stronger negative relationship with daily well-being for employees high (versus low) in workaholism and that daily physical and social activities have a stronger positive relationship with well-being for employees high (versus low) in workaholism. The results of multilevel analyses largely supported the hypotheses for daily physical and work-related activities but not for social activities during non-work time. These findings imply that organizations should not encourage their employees and particularly those who score high on workaholism to work during non-work time and instead promote physical exercise.

I can't get no job satisfaction: Meta‐analysis comparing permanent and contingent workers

Abstract: Summary Scholars are concerned that contingent workers experience more adverse psychological job outcomes than permanent employees, but the empirical work on job satisfaction is mixed. The purpose of this study was to quantitatively summarize the potential mean differences in job satisfaction between contingent workers and permanent employees. Meta-analytic results from 72 primary studies (N = 237 856) suggest that compared with permanent employees, contingent workers experience lower job satisfaction (d = −0.21); but when outlying primary studies are removed, the mean difference is small but significant (d = −0.06). Methodological artifacts explain small but significant differences in job satisfaction but do not account for much variance. Moderator analyses support previous findings that contingent workers are not a homogeneous group; some contingent workers (e.g., agency workers) experience lower job satisfaction than permanent employees, whereas the job satisfaction of other contingent workers (e.g., contractors) is similar to permanent employees. The findings have implications for increasing our understanding of job satisfaction by showing that job satisfaction appears to vary by employment type. Practical implications suggest that extending human resource practices to contingent workers may increase their job satisfaction, which has been shown to influence job performance, citizenship behaviors, and turnover. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

To reflect or not to reflect: Prior team performance as a boundary condition of the effects of reflexivity on learning and final team performance

Abstract: A small but growing body of literature adds to our understanding of the role of team reflexivity (i.e., reflecting upon team functioning) in predicting team performance. Although many studies conclude that reflexivity is an asset for teams, the contingencies of team reflexivity have received far less research attention. In this respect, we argue that team reflexivity may be especially helpful for teams with relatively low performance. Teams that are reflexive tend to learn from previous mistakes, errors, and group processes, which in turn will improve the performance of the team. We propose that this relationship will most likely positively affect learning and final team performance under conditions of relatively poor prior performance. When a team is doing relatively well, the relationship between reflexivity and final team performance will be less clear, as reflexivity and learning is less needed. In a longitudinal study (N = 73 teams), we found support for this idea. As predicted, results indicated that this interaction between team reflexivity and initial team performance on future performance was mediated by team learning. We outline how these findings are important for our understanding of the contingencies of team reflexivity and team performance dynamics.

Dynamics of calling: a longitudinal study of musicians

Abstract: The dominant view of calling among management scholars is that it is a stable construct that does not change. This view has resulted in a research void about calling's early development and subsequent evolution. Insight into the dynamic process through which callings develop is fundamental to understanding its role in people's careers and lives. In this study, I focus on the antecedents of calling, a consuming, meaningful passion people can experience toward a domain. I propose a dynamic model in which calling can change over time and can be shaped by antecedent factors, specifically, through people's ability, behavioral involvement, and social comfort in the area toward which they feel a calling. I tested these ideas in a seven-year, four-wave prospective longitudinal survey study of 450 amateur musicians. Multilevel analyses indicate individuals who were more behaviorally involved and felt higher social comfort in the calling domain (e.g., music) experienced higher levels of calling early on but experienced a decline in calling over time. Individuals' ability in the calling domain was not related to initial calling or change in calling. I discuss the implications for theory and research on calling, meaning of work, and the dynamics of careers. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A multi-level investigation of psychological contract breach and organizational identification through the lens of perceived organizational membership: testing a moderated-mediated model

Abstract: Drawing on the perceived organizational membership theoretical framework and the social identity view of dissonance theory, I examined in this study the dynamics of the relationship between psychological contract breach and organizational identification. I included group-level transformational and transactional leadership as well as procedural justice in the hypothesized model as key antecedents for organizational membership processes. I further explored the mediating role of psychological contract breach in the relationship between leadership, procedural justice climate, and organizational identification and proposed separateness–connectedness self-schema as an important moderator of the above mediated relationship. Hierarchical linear modeling results from a sample of 864 employees from 162 work units in 10 Greek organizations indicated that employees' perception of psychological contract breach negatively affected their organizational identification. I also found psychological contract breach to mediate the impact of transformational and transactional leadership on organizational identification. Results further provided support for moderated mediation and showed that the indirect effects of transformational and transactional leadership on identification through psychological contract breach were stronger for employees with a low connectedness self-schema.

Cognitive social structures in social network research: A review

Abstract: Summary This review highlights one stream of work within the social network field, namely the work on cognitive social structures (CSS). First, CSS research is positioned within the field of social networks, and the key methods associated with CSS research are described. Research examining systematic biases in individuals' perceptions of social networks is covered, as is research examining the consequences of biased network perceptions (in terms of behaviors and outcomes). A research agenda is forwarded, suggesting three key directions for future research: the social capital of cognitive ties, extending and challenging network accuracy as a source of advantage and collective agency and organizational change. The overall goal is to invigorate research that moves beyond the description of cognitive social structures to an outcome-focused research paradigm. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Proactive and reactive helping: Contrasting the positive consequences of different forms of helping

Abstract: SummaryResearch on helping has identified positive consequences of helping for the helper, beneficiary, group, and organization. Recent research, however, raises concerns about contingencies that influence the outcomes of helping and suggests the need for a more nuanced perspective on the positive outcomes of helping. In this paper, we develop a novel theoretical perspective to address these contingencies by differentiating between proactive helping and reactive helping. Drawing from the two main theoretical frameworks, which have been used as the basis for studying helping—social exchange theory and functional motives theory—we discuss differences in the positive consequences of reactive and proactive helping for helpers, dyads, groups, and organizations. We submit that reactive helping facilitates heedful relationships, such that it creates and perpetuates social exchange norms thatbenefit othersin the group. Conversely, we posit that proactive helping is often based on fulfilling personal needs, such that itbenefits the selfin terms of reputational benefits, well-being, favorable self-evaluations, need satisfaction, and self-development. We discuss theoretical implications of this framework for future research on the positive consequences of helping. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Exceptional boards: Environmental experience and positive deviance from institutional norms

Abstract: Summary Thispaperexplores the phenomenon ofpositiveorganizationaldeviancefrom institutionalnorms byestablishing practices that protect or enhance the natural environment. Seeking to explain why some organizations practice positive environmental deviance while others do not, we locate our inquiry on the board of directors—the organizational body that interprets external issues and guides organizational response. We fi nd as trong correlation between positive deviance and the past environmental experience of board directorsand the centrality of the organization within field-level networks. Organizations located on the periphery of the network or whose boards possess a high level of environmental experience are more likely to deviate in positive ways. Our conclusions contribute to multiple literatures in behavioral and environmental governance, the role of filtering and enaction in the process of institutional conformity and change, and the mechanisms behind proactive environmental protection strategies within business. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Integrating workplace aggression research: Relational, contextual, and method considerations

Abstract: Summary The present article takes an integrative perspective on the field of workplace aggression to highlight areas of ambiguity and opportunities for future research. First, by simultaneously examining the perpetrator- and target-focused literatures, we identify a great deal of overlap between predictors and outcomes in the two literatures, giving rise to the question of whether key constructs are predictors, outcomes, or both. Second, we determine that the question of “who is the perpetrator?” and “who is the target?” is considerably more ambiguous than implied within each of these independent literatures. Third, our examination suggests that a greater focus on the relational aspect of workplace aggression is particularly important to enable a more comprehensive understanding of this phenomenon. We examine and critique current methods and measurement and propose different approaches to explore workplace aggression in a more dynamic and contextualized way. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

What happens when you trust your supervisor? Mediators of individual performance in trust relationships

Abstract: Summary To understand how trust in supervisor translates into individual job performance, we hypothesize that trust in supervisor facilitates positive psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety, and availability, which in turn predict individual job performance. We assert that each of the three mediating paths in our model represents a distinct mechanism by which trust in supervisor contributes to individual job performance. We test our hypotheses with 206 supervisor–subordinate dyads and find that trust in supervisor contributes to job performance through psychological availability and psychological safety but not psychological meaningfulness. By examining three different psychological mechanisms within the same frame, we provide a test that compares and contrasts the uniqueness of the three pathways. Our findings suggest practical ways for managers to build trust with subordinates and guidance for the design of productive work conditions. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Age and innovation-related behavior: The joint moderating effects of supervisor undermining and proactive personality

Abstract: Summary Previous research has yielded mixed results regarding the effects of age on innovation-related behavior (IRB; i.e., generating, disseminating, and implementing new ideas). This paper hypothesizes that the relationship of age with IRB is jointly moderated by undermining behavior on the part of the supervisor and the extent to which the employee possesses a proactive personality. We collected data from 196 employees at three points in time over a one-year period. Results supported the hypothesized 3-way interaction of age, supervisor undermining, and proactive personality on IRB. As predicted, highly proactive older workers responded to high supervisor undermining with more IRB, whereas older workers low on proactive personality responded to high supervisor undermining with less IRB. On the other hand, when supervisor undermining was low, proactive personality did not moderate the relationship of age with IRB. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Group affective tone: A review and future research directions

Abstract: Summary Similarity in the experience of state affect is a common phenomenon for work team members and has been shown to have important consequences on team behavior and performance. We provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of research on group affective tone, including the development of group affective tone through affective convergence mechanisms, the conceptualization and operationalization of group affective tone, and the theoretical and practical consequences of positive and negative affective tones for group behavior and group performance. Finally, we highlight some emerging research directions that may provide promising avenues for future understanding of the complexity inherent in the formation and influence of state group affect. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Greening organizational behavior: An introduction to the special issue

Abstract: Each of the six articles in this Special Issue on “Greening Organizational Behavior” offers a perspective that provides unique insight and enriches our understanding of organizational greening. As a set, the articles span all levels of analysis, from a study of individual differences to an investigation of leadership dynamics to the analysis of firms and their institutional environments. Taken together, these articles illustrate the complex nature of organizational greening and highlight the need for research that adopts a systems perspective. The embedded and nested nature of organizational greening behavior requires additional research that investigates the interrelated influences of greening behavior by individual employees, work groups, and organizations. By recognizing and appreciating these multi-level dynamics, scholars of organizational behavior are poised to improve our understanding of effective organizational greening initiatives and thereby promote advancement toward environmental sustainability.

High‐performer turnover and firm performance: The moderating role of human capital investment and firm reputation

Abstract: Summary Research has shown a complex relationship between turnover and firm performance. Not only does it matter who leaves (e.g., high-performing versus low-performing employees), but the context also stands to influence this effect in complex ways. We apply human capital theory, social capital theory, and the cost–benefit perspective to propose two boundary conditions to the high-performer turnover and firm performance relationship. Specifically, we predict that the negative impact of high-performer turnover on firm performance will be the strongest for reputable firms and for firms who invest less in human capital (e.g., selection, training, and incentive-based pay). We present data from 155 South Korean firms that support the hypothesized model. We discuss findings in terms of current and future theory, practical implications, and subsequent research needs. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Explaining task performance and creativity from perceived organizational support theory: Which mechanisms are more important?

Abstract: Summary Perceived organizational support (POS) theory specifies three mechanisms—felt obligation, group identification, and outcome expectancy—to explain the effects of organizational support on employee work outcomes. These mechanisms have usually been examined in isolation so that it is not possible to assess their relative explanatory power. The present study aims to remedy this problem by examining the three mechanisms simultaneously using structural equation modeling. On the basis of a sample of 206 bank employees in China, we focus on two types of employee performance—task performance and creativity—as dependent variables. Drawing on self-determination theory and characteristics of the research context, we propose that task performance is more strongly predicted by felt obligation than by the other two mechanisms, whereas identification and expectancy more strongly predict creativity than felt obligation. We conclude by discussing our contribution to POS and creativity research, and highlight some important implications of our findings. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Introducing the construct curiosity for predicting job performance

Abstract: Summary The present paper provides a conceptual and empirical examination regarding the relevance of the construct curiosity for work-related outcomes. On the basis of a review and integration of the literature regarding the construct itself, the construct is conceptually linked with performance in the work context. In line with a confirmatory research strategy, the sample of the present study (N=320) has requirements which reflect this conceptual link. Results from a concurrent validation study confirmed the hypothesis regarding the significance of curiosity for job performance (r=.34). Furthermore, incremental validity of curiosity above 12 cognitive and non-cognitive predictors for job performance suggests that curiosity captures variance in the criterion that is not explained by predictors traditionally used in organizational psychology. It is concluded that curiosity is an important variable for the prediction and explanation of work-related behavior. Furthermore, given the dramatic changes in the world of work, the importance is likely to rise, rather than to decline, which has important implications for organizational theories and applied purposes, such as personnel selection. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Emotion regulation as a boundary condition of the relationship between team conflict and performance : a multi-level examination

Abstract: Summary Although task conflict is widely believed to be beneficial whereas relationship conflict is destructive, evidence overall does not support this conclusion. This study develops the idea that the emotion regulation abilities of team members affect how they manage task and relationship conflict, both as individuals and as a team. Findings from a field study involving 39 teams support the argument that individuals skilled in emotion regulation can take advantage of task conflict to perform effectively and limit the negative impact of relationship conflict. Groups that have individuals highly skilled in emotion regulation were also found to make good use of team conflict. Results suggest that emotion regulation skills contribute to the effective management of task conflict and relationship conflict at both individual and group levels. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Organizational predictors and health consequences of changes in burnout: A 12-year cohort study

Abstract: Summary We investigated job burnout and job characteristics, including decision authority, skill discretion, predict-ability, andinformationflow,amongFinnishforestryworkers(N=4356) ina longitudinal study. Welinkedthese responses individually with data on the participants’ subsequent prescriptions for psychotropic drugsincludingantidepressants.Weaimtostudytheantecedentsofchangesinburnoutlevelsoverfouryearstimeand their health-related consequences in an eight-year follow-up. The results showed that inconsistencyamong the levels of the Maslach Burnout Inventory subscales (e. g., high scores in exhaustion and lowcynicism or vice versa) at baseline identified patterns that were prone to change in burnout four years later.Informationflow predicted the direction of this change for the exhaustion and cynicism aspects of burnout,whereas skill discretion and predictability did so for reduced professional efficacy. Change toward burnoutpredicted future risk of psychotropic drug use. It seems that adverse changes in burnout are influenced bypoor organizational resources, and change toward burnout is likely to elevate the risk of poor mental health.Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.Keywords: burnout; health; longitudinal; change

Drivers of freelance career success

Abstract: Recent evidence shows that the frequently proclaimed collapse of the traditional career model is actually not supported by job tenure data. This paper argues that the observed stability of job tenure might be explained by an increasing number of shamrock organizations. This organizational form has three types of workers: core employees, professional freelancers, and routine workers. In such an organization, two very different career models coexist. The organization largely determines the career of the core employee, whereas the individual essentially shapes that of the professional freelancer. This paper studies extensively the career of this second group: the professional freelancer, a growing phenomenon in many developed countries but not yet the focus of many career studies. We develop a freelance career success model on basis of the intelligent career framework augmented by insights from literature on entrepreneurship. Data are from a web survey with responses from about 1600 independent professionals in the Netherlands, in combination with 51 in-depth interviews. We provide two main contributions. First, we report findings from the first large-scale quantitative study into freelance career success. Second, this study enhances our understanding of the success of the modern career by building bridges between career and entrepreneurship literatures. We conclude that the external environment in which an individual freelancer operates is the most important factor determining career success. The study therefore suggests that more work needs to be performed on the relationship between the environment and individual career success.