Showing papers on "Physical capital published in 2010"

Capital Inflows: The Role of Controls

Abstract: There is no surefire one-size-fits-all way to deal with the impact of potentially destabilizing short-term capital inflows. From an individual-country point of view, the usual elements of the toolkit to manage inflows include currency appreciation, reserves accumulation, adjustments in fiscal and monetary policy, and strengthening the prudential framework. In some circumstances, however, the usual macro policy remedies will not be appropriate so the construction of new regulation mechanisms of capital flow is needed.

How General Is Human Capital? A Task-Based Approach

Abstract: This article studies how portable skills accumulated in the labor market are. Using rich data on tasks performed in occupations, we propose the concept of task‐specific human capital to measure empirically the transferability of skills across occupations. Our results on occupational mobility and wages show that labor market skills are more portable than previously considered. We find that individuals move to occupations with similar task requirements and that the distance of moves declines with experience. We also show that task‐specific human capital is an important source of individual wage growth, accounting for up to 52% of overall wage growth.

Human Capital, Bankruptcy, and Capital Structure

Abstract: We derive a firm’s optimal capital structure and managerial compensation contract when employees are averse to bearing their own human capital risk, while equity holders can diversify this risk away. In the presence of corporate taxes, our model delivers optimal debt levels consistent with those observed in practice. It also makes a number of predictions for the cross-sectional distribution of firm leverage. Consistent with existing empirical evidence, it implies persistent idiosyncratic dierences in leverage across firms. An important new empirical prediction of the model is that, ceteris paribus, firms with more leverage should pay higher wages.

The New Kaldor Facts: Ideas, Institutions, Population, and Human Capital

Abstract: In 1961, Nicholas Kaldor used his list of six “stylized” facts both to summarize the patterns that economists had discovered in national income accounts and to shape the growth models that they were developing to explain them. Redoing this exercise today, nearly fifty years later, shows how much progress we have made. In contrast to Kaldor’s facts, which revolved around a single state variable, physical capital, our six updated facts force consideration of four far more interesting variables: ideas, institutions, population, and human capital. Dynamic models have uncovered subtle interactions between these variables and generated important insights about such big questions as: Why has growth accelerated? Why are there gains from trade?

Sustainability and the Measurement of Wealth

Abstract: We develop a consistent and comprehensive theoretical framework for assessing whether economic growth is compatible with sustaining well-being over time. The framework focuses on whether a comprehensive measure of wealth - one that accounts for natural capital and human capital as well as reproducible capital - is maintained through time. Our framework also integrates population growth, technological change, and changes in health. We apply the framework to five countries that differ significantly in stages of development and resource bases: the United States, China, Brazil, India, and Venezuela. With the exception of Venezuela, significant increases in human capital enable comprehensive wealth to be maintained (and sustainability to be achieved) despite significant reductions in the natural resource base. We find that the value of "health capital" is very large relative to other forms of capital. As a result, its growth rate critically influences the growth rate of per-capita comprehensive wealth.

A slacks-based inefficiency measure for a two-stage system with bad outputs

Abstract: We model the performance of DMUs (decision-making units) using a two-stage network model. In the first stage of production DMUs use inputs to produce an intermediate output that becomes an input to a second stage where final outputs are produced. Previous black box DEA models allowed for non-radial scaling of outputs and inputs and accounted for slacks in the constraints that define the technology. We extend these models and build a performance measure that accounts for a network structure of production. We use our method to estimate the performance of Japanese banks, which use labor, physical capital, and financial equity capital in a first stage to produce an intermediate output of deposits. In the second stage, those deposits become an input in the production of loans and securities investments. The network estimates reveal greater bank inefficiency than do the estimates that treat the bank production process as a black box with all production taking place in a single stage.

Fertility, Human Capital, and Economic Growth over the Demographic Transition

Abstract: Do low fertility and population aging lead to economic decline if couples have fewer children, but invest more in each child? By addressing this question, this article extends previous work in which the authors show that population aging leads to an increased demand for wealth that can, under some conditions, lead to increased capital per worker and higher per capita consumption. This article is based on an overlapping generations (OLG) model which highlights the quantity–quality tradeoff and the links between human capital investment and economic growth. It incorporates new national level estimates of human capital investment produced by the National Transfer Accounts project. Simulation analysis is employed to show that, even in the absence of the capital dilution effect, low fertility leads to higher per capita consumption through human capital accumulation, given plausible model parameters.

When Does Information Asymmetry Affect the Cost of Capital

Abstract: This paper examines when information asymmetry among investors affects the cost of capital in excess of standard risk factors. When equity markets are perfectly competitive, information asymmetry has no separate effect on the cost of capital. When markets are imperfect, information asymmetry can have a separate effect on firms’ cost of capital. Consistent with our prediction, we find that information asymmetry has a positive relation with firms’ cost of capital in excess of standard risk factors when markets are imperfect and no relation when markets approximate perfect competition. Overall, our results show that the degree of market competition is an important conditioning variable to consider when examining the relation between information asymmetry and cost of capital.

Civic Capital as the Missing Link

Abstract: This chapter reviews the recent debate about the role of social capital in economics. We argue that all the difficulties this concept has encountered in economics are due to a vague and excessively broad definition. For this reason, we restrict social capital to the set of values and beliefs that help cooperation, which for clarity we label civic capital. We argue that this definition differentiates social capital from human capital and satisfies the properties of the standard notion of capital. We then argue that civic capital can explain why differences in economic performance persist over centuries and discuss how the effect of civic capital can be distinguished empirically from other variables that affect economic performance and its persistence, including institutions and geography. JEL Codes: A1, A12, D1, O15, Z1

Common Problems in Capital Structure Research: The Financial-Debt-To-Asset Ratio, and Issuing Activity vs. Leverage Changes

Abstract: This paper points out two common problems in capital structure research. First, although it is not clear whether they should be considered debt, non-financial liabilities should never be considered as equity. Yet, the common financial-debt-to-asset ratio (FD/AT) measure of leverage commits exactly this mistake. Thus, research that explains increases in FD/AT explains, at least in parts, decreases in non-financial liabilities. Future research should avoid FD/AT altogether. Second, equity issuing activity should not be viewed as equivalent to capital structure changes. Empirically, the correlation between the two is weak. The capital structure and capital issuing literature are distinct.

A supply chain‐oriented approach of working capital management

Abstract: This article analyzes and illustrates the role of payment terms for working capital improvements in supply chains. So far, research has shown how individual industries and powerful companies were able to enhance their cash-to-cash cycles at both their supplier's and customer's expense. From a "network perspective," the exploitation of individual advantages by a single powerful company lowers the overall financial wealth of the supply chain. Therefore, a collaborative working capital management approach is proposed, by which the cash-to-cash cycles of companies with the lowest weighted average cost of capital (WACC) should be extended, while companies with higher financing costs are relieved by a shortened cash-to-cash cycle. An unequal distribution of power, however, between supply chain members can be the main hindrance for developing a collaborative working capital management solution.

How bank capital buffers vary across countries: The influence of cost of deposits, market power and bank regulation

Abstract: This paper analyzes the bank and country determinants of capital buffers using a panel data of 1337 banks in 70 countries between 1992 and 2002. After controlling for adjustment costs and the endogeneity of explanatory variables, the results show that capital buffers are positively related to the cost of deposits and bank market power, although the relations vary across countries depending on regulation, supervision, and institutions. Their impact is the result of two generally opposing effects: restrictions on bank activities and official supervision reduce the incentives to hold capital buffers by weakening market discipline, but at the same time they promote higher capital buffers by increasing market power. Institutional quality has the two opposite effects. Better accounting disclosure and less generous deposit insurance, however, have a clear positive effect on capital buffers by both strengthening market discipline and making charter value better able to reduce risk-taking incentives.

Contingent Capital with a Dual Price Trigger

Abstract: This paper proposes a form of contingent capital for financial institutions that converts from debt to equity if two conditions are met: the firm's stock price is at or below a trigger value and the value of a financial institutions index is also at or below a trigger value. This structure protects financial firms during a crisis, when all are performing badly, but during normal times permits a bank performing badly to go bankrupt. I discuss a number of issues associated with the design of a contingent capital claim, including susceptibility to manipulation and whether conversion should be for a fixed dollar amount of shares or a fixed number of shares; the susceptibility of different contingent capital schemes to different kinds of errors (under and over-capitalization); and the losses likely to be incurred by shareholders upon the imposition of a requirement for contingent capital. I also present some illustrative pricing examples.

What Capital Is Missing in Developing Countries

Abstract: What capital is missing in developing coun tries? We put forward "managerial capital," which is distinct from human capital, as a key missing form of capital in developing countries. And it has also been curiously missing in the research on growth and development. We argue in this paper that lack of managerial capital has broad implications for firm growth as well as for the effectiveness of other input factors. A large literature in development economics aims to understand the impediments to firm growth, particularly in small and medium enterprises. Standard growth theories have explored the importance of input factors such as capital and labor in the production function of firms and countries. At the micro level, empirical studies

Working Capital Management

Abstract: As soon as a firm starts operating and furthermore, the moment it starts to grow, it needs to come to a decision about how to invest funds, how much cash and inventory to hold on to, how much financing to provide to customers, how to obtain the necessary funds, how much debt to take on and in which terms-all the answers to these questions have serious consequences for a firm's cash flow and profitability. Working Capital Management is a hands-on look at the crucial decision of how to define and finance the operating investments of a business. Starting with an overview of the fundamental framework of corporate finance, the authors set out to define the central, and usually underestimated, role that working capital plays within this structure. They show not only how to prevent the losses that result from mishandling of working capital, but also how to fully exploit the strategic potential that intelligent, expert management of working capital allows. The book is the first to emphasize the relevance of the interplay between the investment and finance aspects of working capital, by discussing all of the main components of a firm's operating expenses from both an investment and finance perspective. After focusing on the varying aspects and themes of working capital, such as inventory management, strategic accounting, trade credit, and short-term debt, the authors move on to identify the long-term implications and opportunities raised by this often overlooked aspect of corporate finance. Lorenzo Preve and Virginia Sarria Allende have at last provided a resource that identifies the impact of day-to-day business decisions, uncovering a highly influential, aspect of all firms' financial situation.

Invested resource, competitive intellectual capital, and corporate performance

Abstract: Purpose – On the health care industry, the paper aims to study the effects of intellectual capital, identify using an input‐process‐output concept of human, customer, innovative and process capitals, on company performances.Design/methodology/approach – From a resource‐based and intellectual capital perspective, the structural path model is applied to financial data to analyze the six‐value creation relationships among the four components of intellectual capital, as well as the causal effects of intellectual capital on company performance.Findings – Empirical findings suggest a significant relationship between intellectual capital and company performance. These results also suggest that innovative capacity and process reformation shall be considered first, and through the human value‐added of human capital, firms can improve their company's performance.Originality/value – There have been many arguments as to whether intellectual capital is quantitatively measurable. This paper provides a tangible means of...

How important is human capital? A quantitative theory assessment of world income inequality

Abstract: We develop a quantitative theory of human capital investment in order to evaluate the magnitude of cross-country dierences in total factor productivity (TFP) that explains the variation in per-capita incomes across countries. We build a heterogeneousagent economy with cross-sectional variation in ability, schooling, and expenditures on schooling quality. In our theory, the parameters governing human capital production and random ability process have important implications for a set of cross-sectional statistics Mincer return, variance of earnings, variance of schooling, and intergenerational correlation of earnings. These restrictions of the theory and U.S. household data are used to pin down the key parameters driving the quantitative implications of the theory. Our main finding is that human capital accumulation strongly amplifies TFP dierences across countries. In particular, we find an elasticity of output per worker with respect to TFP of 2.8: a 3-fold dierence in TFP explains a 20-fold dierence in output per worker. We argue that the cross-country dierences in human capital implied by the theory are consistent with a wide array of evidence including earnings of immigrants in the United States, average mincer returns across countries, and the relationship between average years of schooling and per-capita income across countries. The theory implies that using Mincer returns to measure human capital understates dierences across countries by a factor of 2.

Explaining Corporate Capital Structure: Product Markets, Leases, and Asset Similarity

Abstract: Better measurement of the output produced and capital employed by firms substantially improves the ability to explain capital structure variation in the cross-section. For every firm, we construct the set of other firms producing the same output using the set of product market competitors listed in the firm’s public SEC filings. In addition, we improve measurement of capital structure by explicitly accounting for leased capital. These two steps increase the explanatory power of the average capital structure of other firms producing similar output on a firm’s capital structure by 50%, compared to the use of the average unadjusted debt ratio of other firms in the same 3-digit SIC code. We provide evidence that the large explanatory power of the capital structure of other firms producing similar output is related to the assets used in the production process. Our findings suggest that what a firm produces and the assets used in production are the most important determinants of capital structure in the cross-section.

Some Macroeconomic Aspects of Global Population Aging

Abstract: Across the demographic transition, declining mortality followed by declining fertility produces decades of rising support ratios as child dependency falls. These improving support ratios raise per capita consumption, other things equal, but eventually deteriorate as the population ages. Population aging and the forces leading to it can produce not only frightening declines in support ratios but also very substantial increases in productivity and per capita income by raising investment in physical and human capital. Longer life, lower fertility, and population aging all raise the demand for wealth needed to provide for old-age consumption. This leads to increased capital per worker even as aggregate saving rates fall. However, capital per worker may not rise if the increased demand for wealth is satisfied by increased familial or public pension transfers to the elderly. Thus, institutions and policies matter for the consequences of population aging. The accumulation of human capital also varies across the transition. Lower fertility and mortality are associated with higher human capital investment per child, also raising labor productivity. Together, the positive changes due to human and physical capital accumulation will likely outweigh the problems of declining support ratios. We draw on estimates and analyses from the National Transfer Accounts project to illustrate and quantify these points.

Institutions, Capital, and Growth

Abstract: The international development community has encouraged investment in physical and human capital as a precursor to economic progress. Recent evidence shows, however, that increases in capital do not always lead to increases in output. We develop a growth model where the allocation and productivity of capital depends on a country's institutions. We find that increases in physical and human capital lead to output growth only in countries with good institutions. In countries with bad institutions, increases in capital lead to negative growth rates because additions to the capital stock tend to be employed in rent-seeking and other socially unproductive activities.

Capital Structure, Cost of Capital, and Voluntary Disclosures

Abstract: This paper develops a model of financing that jointly determines a firm's capital structure, its voluntary disclosure policy, and its cost of capital. Investors who receive securities in return for supplying capital sometimes incur losses when they trade their securities with an informed trader. The firm's disclosure policy and the structure of its securities determine the information advantage of the informed trader, and hence the size of investors' trading losses and the firm's cost of capital. We establish a hierarchy of optimal securities and disclosure policies that varies with the volatility of the firm's cash flows. Debt securities are often optimal, with the form of debt -- risk-free, investment grade, or "junk" -- varying with the firm's cash flow volatility. Though the model predicts a negative association between firms' cost of capital and the extent of information firms disclose, more expansive voluntary disclosure does not cause firms' cost of capital to decline. Mandatory disclosures alter firms' voluntary disclosures, their capital structure choices, and their cost of capital.

Human Capital Development

Abstract: This paper has two main objectives. First, it assesses and measures the gaps in the stock of human capital across the world. It presents how effectively different regions are improving their stock of human capital, and how long it will take for developing countries to catch up with the current level of human capital in industrialized countries. Second, it revisits the contribution of human capital to economic growth, proposing a decomposition method to account for employment growth – which is also impacted on by human capital growth – in explaining growth in total output per worker. The proposed methodology introduces employment growth in the growth decomposition through the employment growth elasticity. It is conjectured that as human capital increases, employment growth elasticity will decrease, making the economy less labor-intensive, resulting in higher economic growth. The proposed method points to the importance of the micro linkage between human capital and the labor market.

Demographic Change, Human Capital and Welfare

Abstract: This paper employs a large scale overlapping generations (OLG) model with endogenous human capital formation using a Ben-Porath (1967) technology to evaluate the quantitative role of human capital adjustments for the economic consequences of demographic change. We find that endogenous human capital formation is a quantitatively important adjustment mechanism which substantially mitigates the macroeconomic impact of population aging. On the aggregate level, the predicted decrease of the rate of return to physical capital is only one third of the predicted decrease in a standard model with a fixed human capital profile. In terms of welfare, while young agents with little assets gain up to 0.8% in consumption from increasing wages in both models, welfare losses from decreasing returns of older and asset rich households are substantial. But importantly, these losses are about 50-70% higher in the model without endogenous human capital formation. Ignoring this adjustment channel thus leads to quantitatively important biases of the welfare assessment of demographic change. We also document that not reforming the social security system but letting contribution rates increase will largely offset any positive welfare effects for future generations.

Chapter 72 Total Factor Productivity Growth in Agriculture: The Role of Technological Capital

Abstract: In this chapter we compute measures of total factor productivity (TFP) growth for developing countries and then contrast TFP growth with technological capital indexes. In developing these indexes, we incorporate schooling capital to yield two new indexes: Invention-Innovation Capital and Technology Mastery. We find that TFP performance is strongly related to technological capital and that technological capital is required for TFP and cost reduction growth. Investments in technological capital require long-term (20- to 40-year) investments, which are typically made by governments and aid agencies and are the only viable escape route from mass poverty. JEL classifications: Q16, Q18, Q11, O13, O47

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCHOOL EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN PAKISTAN ARDL Bounds Testing Approach to Cointegration

Abstract: The present study is designed to investigate short-run and long-run linkage between school education and economic growth in Pakistan using annual time series data on real GDP, real physical capital, inflation and general school enrollment for the period 1970-71 to 2008-09. Cointegration between school education and economic growth is found in the present study. The results of this study also confirm the existence of two way direct long-run relationship between school education and economic growth in Pakistan. A two way inverse relationship between school education and economic growth is found in short run. Macroeconomic instability due to inflation retards economic growth and school education only in the long-run. A statistical significant and inverse relationship between school education and poverty is observed only in the short-run. On the basis of the findings, this study recommends reduction in macroeconomic instability and poverty. Policy action aiming at increasing school education and accelerating economic growth is desirable.

A Structural Model of Contingent Bank Capital

Abstract: This paper presents a structural credit risk model of a bank that issues short-term de- posits, shareholders'equity, and …xed- or ‡oating-coupon contingent capital bonds. The return on the bank's assets follows a jump-diusion process, and default-free interest rates are stochastic. The prices of the bank's deposits, contingent capital, and shareholders'equity are studied for dierent levels of bank risk and dierent contract terms for its contingent capital. Allowing for the possibility of sudden, large declines in a bank's asset value, as might occur during a …nancial crisis, has distinctive implications for valuing contingent capi- tal. Credit spreads on contingent capital are higher the lower is the equity capital conversion threshold and the larger is the conversion write down from the bond's par value. Credit spreads also rise when conversion awards contingent capital investors a …xed, rather than variable, number of new equity shares. Requiring a decline in a …nancial stock price index for conversion (dual price trigger) makes contingent capital more similar to non-convertible sub- ordinated debt. The paper also examines a bank's risk-shifting incentives and the problem of "debt overhang"when it issues dierent forms of contingent capital and non-convertible subordinated debt. Issuing contingent capital can create a moral hazard incentive to raise the bank's asset risks, but this incentive is often less than when the bank issues subordinated debt. Similarly, the debt overhang problem can be reduced with contingent capital relative to subordinated debt. In general, moral hazard and debt overhang problems are least when contractual terms minimize contingent capital's default risk, making the risk of the bank's shareholders'equity similar to that under unlimited liability.