Showing papers in "Applied Cognitive Psychology in 2017"

Why Education Predicts Decreased Belief in Conspiracy Theories.

Abstract: People with high education are less likely than people with low education to believe in conspiracy theories. It is yet unclear why these effects occur, however, as education predicts a range of cognitive, emotional, and social outcomes. The present research sought to identify mediators of the relationship between education and conspiracy beliefs. Results of Study 1 revealed three independent mediators of this relationship, namely, belief in simple solutions for complex problems, feelings of powerlessness, and subjective social class. A nationally representative sample (Study 2) replicated these findings except for subjective social class. Moreover, variations in analytic thinking statistically accounted for the path through belief in simple solutions. I conclude that the relationship between education and conspiracy beliefs cannot be reduced to a single mechanism but is the result of the complex interplay of multiple psychological factors that are associated with education. © 2016 The Authors. Applied Cognitive Psychology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Creating Memories for False Autobiographical Events in Childhood: A Systematic Review

Abstract: Using a framework that distinguishes autobiographical belief, recollective experience, and confidence in memory, we review three major paradigms used to suggest false childhood events to adults: imagination inflation, false feedback and memory implantation. Imagination inflation and false feedback studies increase the belief that a suggested event occurred by a small amount such that events are still thought unlikely to have happened. In memory implantation studies, some recollective experience for the suggested events is induced on average in 47% of participants, but only in 15% are these experiences likely to be rated as full memories. We conclude that susceptibility to false memories of childhood events appears more limited than has been suggested. The data emphasise the complex judgements involved in distinguishing real from imaginary recollections and caution against accepting investigator-based ratings as necessarily corresponding to participants' self-reports. Recommendations are made for presenting the results of these studies in courtroom settings.

Effects of Integrating Physical Activities Into a Science Lesson on Preschool Children's Learning and Enjoyment

Abstract: Summary: This study investigated the effects of physical activities that were integrated into a science lesson on learning among preschool children. A total of 90 children from seven childcare centres (Mage = 4.90, SD = 0.52; 45 girls) were randomly assigned across an integrated physical activity condition including task-relevant physical activities, a nonintegrated physical activity condition involving task-irrelevant physical activities, or a control condition involving the predominantly conventional sedentary style of teaching. Children learned the names of the planets and their order, based on the distance from the sun. For both the immediate and delayed (6 weeks after the programme) assessments, results showed that learning outcomes were highest in the integrated condition and higher in the nonintegrated condition than in the control condition. Children in the integrated condition scored higher on perceived enjoyment of learning than children in the control condition. Implications of integrated physical activity programmes for preschool children's health, cognition, and learning are further discussed. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Effects of Cell Phone Use and Emotion-regulation Style on College Students' Learning

Abstract: Summary Cell phones are becoming an inevitable part of the classroom, but extant research suggests that using cell phones in the classroom impairs academic performance. The present study examined the impact of different cell phone policies on learning and emotion-regulation style. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions: cell phone usage allowed, cell phone possession allowed but without usage, cell phones removed, and a no-instruction control group. All participants watched a 20-minute lecture and were sent text messages to mimic classroom distractions. Afterward, participants took a multiple-choice test and filled out questionnaires assessing their level of obsessiveness, nomophobia, and mindfulness. Participants who had their cell phone taken away performed best on the test with no other differences. None of the emotional-regulation measures moderated the results. These findings provide important insight as to how cell phone policies can optimize learning in the classroom.Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Selective Association Between Tetris Game Play and Visuospatial Working Memory: A Preliminary Investigation

Abstract: Recent experimental and clinical research has suggested that Tetris game play can disrupt maladaptive forms of mental imagery because Tetris competes for limited cognitive resources within visuospatial working memory (WM) that contribute to imagery. Whether or not Tetris performance is selectively associated with visuospatial WM remains to be tested. In this study, young adults (N = 46) completed six standardized measures indexing verbal and non-verbal reasoning, verbal and visuospatial short-term memory, and verbal and visuospatial WM. They also played Tetris. Consistent with the hypothesis that visuospatial WM resources support Tetris game play, there was a significant moderate positive relationship between Tetris scores and visuospatial WM performance but no association with other cognitive ability measures. Findings suggest that Tetris game play involves both storage and processing resources within visuospatial WM. These preliminary results can inform interventions involving computer games to disrupt the development of maladaptive visual imagery, for example, intrusive memories of trauma. © 2017 The Authors. Applied Cognitive Psychology Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

‘Lyin' Ted’, ‘Crooked Hillary’, and ‘Deceptive Donald’: Language of Lies in the 2016 US Presidential Debates

Abstract: Summary Language in the high-stakes 2016 US presidential primary campaign was contentious, filled with name-calling, personal attacks, and insults. Language in debates served at least three political functions: for image making, to imagine potential realities currently not in practice, and to disavow facts. In past research, the reality monitoring (RM) framework has discriminated accurately between truthful and deceptive accounts (~70% classification). Truthful accounts show greater sensory, time and space, and affective information, with little evidence of cognitive operations. An RM algorithm was used with Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count software to code candidates' language. RM scores were significantly higher in fact-checked truth statements than in lies, and debate language in the 2016 primaries was as deceptive as fact-checked lies. In a binary logistic regression model, one RM criterion, cognitive processes, predicted veracity using computerized RM, classifying 87% of fact-checked truth statements but only 28% of fact-checked lie statements (63% classification overall).Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Effects of Alcohol Intoxication on Accuracy and the Confidence-Accuracy Relationship in Photographic Simultaneous Line-ups.

Abstract: Acute alcohol intoxication during encoding can impair subsequent identification accuracy, but results across studies have been inconsistent, with studies often finding no effect. Little is also known about how alcohol intoxication affects the identification confidence-accuracy relationship. We randomly assigned women (n=153) to consume alcohol (dosed to achieve a 0.08% BAC) or tonic water, controlling for alcohol expectancy. Women then participated in an interactive hypothetical sexual assault scenario and, twenty-four hours or seven days later, attempted to identify the assailant from a perpetrator present or a perpetrator absent simultaneous lineup and reported their decision confidence. Overall, levels of identification accuracy were similar across the alcohol and tonic water groups. However, women who had consumed tonic water as opposed to alcohol identified the assailant with higher confidence on average. Further, calibration analyses suggested confidence is predictive of accuracy regardless of alcohol consumption. The theoretical and applied implications of our results are discussed.

Statistical Bias and Endorsement of Conspiracy Theories

Abstract: Previous research proposes that endorsement of anomalous beliefs is associated with proneness to conjunction error. This supposition ignores important differences between belief types. Correspondingly, the present study examined the degree to which components of statistical bias predicted conspiratorial ideation and belief in the paranormal. Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling revealed that conjunction error was associated with conspiratorial ideation, whilst perception of randomness most strongly predicted belief in the paranormal. These findings opposed the notion that anomalous beliefs, by virtue of possession of common characteristics, relate similarly to conjunction error. With regard to conspiracy, conjunction-framing manipulations produced only minor variations in relationship strength. This supported the notion that conspiratorial ideation was associated with a domain-general susceptibility to conjunction error. Framing, however, did influence the relationship between belief in the paranormal and conjunction; whilst, paranormal conjunctions were generally easier to solve, performance declined as level of paranormal belief increased.

Adult eyewitness memory for single versus repeated traumatic events

Abstract: Summary Reports from individuals who have witnessed multiple, similar emotional events may differ from reports from witnesses of only a single event To test this, we had participants (N = 65) view a video of a road traffic accident Half of the participants saw two additional (similar) aversive films Afterwards, participants filled out the Self-Administered Interview on the target film twice with an interval of 1 week Participants who saw multiple similar films were less accurate in recalling details from the target film than participants in the control condition On their second report, participants were less complete but more accurate compared with their first report These results indicate that adults who have witnessed multiple repeated events may appear less reliable in their reports than adults who have witnessed a single event These findings are relevant when evaluating eyewitness evidence and call for new approaches to questioning witnesses about repeated eventsCopyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

More Evidence for Three Types of Cognitive Style: Validating the Object-Spatial Imagery and Verbal Questionnaire Using Eye Tracking when Learning with Texts and Pictures.

Abstract: There is some indication that people differ regarding their visual and verbal cognitive style. The Object-Spatial Imagery and Verbal Questionnaire (OSIVQ) assumes a three-dimensional cognitive style model, which distinguishes between object imagery, spatial imagery and verbal dimensions. Using eye tracking as a means to observe actual gaze behaviours when learning with text-picture combinations, the current study aims to validate this three-dimensional assumption by linking the OSIVQ to learning behaviour. The results largely confirm the model in that they show the expected correlations between results on the OSIVQ, visuo-spatial ability and learning behaviour. Distinct differences between object visualizers, spatial visualizers and verbalizers could be demonstrated.

Effects of Feedback on Self‐Evaluations and Self‐Regulation in Elementary School

Abstract: Summary Elementary school learners are typically highly confident when judging accuracy of their test responses, relatively independent of whether these are correct. While feedback has been shown to improve accuracy of adults' and adolescents' self-evaluations and subsequent self-regulation, little is known about beneficial effects for elementary school children. We investigated effects of fine-grained feedback on fourth and sixth graders' self-evaluations and restudy selections by presenting them the ideas they were meant to bring up in their test responses. One group received full-definition feedback standards, whereas the other group received idea-unit feedback standards. The two types of feedback strongly improved fourth and sixth graders' self-evaluations for commission errors and for partially correct responses. While restudy selections before feedback were more adaptive for sixth than fourth graders, age differences disappeared after receiving feedback. Findings imply that feedback standards are a suitable tool to calibrate elementary school learners and to support effective self-regulation.Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Changes in Interviewers' Use of Supportive Techniques during the Revised Protocol Training

Abstract: Summary: Although many children are reluctant to disclose abuse due to embarrassment, fear, and the anticipation of negative consequences, researchers have only recently begun to examine whether forensic interviewers can be trained to manage children's reluctance. In this study, the supportiveness of 53 experienced interviewers was assessed in their interviews with 321 3- to 14-year-old alleged victims, each conducted during the course of training to use the Revised Protocol (RP). The use of support increased, especially between levels evident at baseline and in the last two interviews assessed. Over time, instances of inadequate support and insensitivity to children's reluctance became less common. Younger children received proportionally more support, including inadequate support, than older children. The RP training did not affect the extensive use of free recall-based questions. Findings highlight the benefits of continued supervision and training.Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Children's Reasoning About Which Episode of a Repeated Event is Best Remembered

Abstract: Summary Despite much research into children's ability to report information from an individual episode of a repeated event, their capacity to identify well-remembered episodes is unknown. Children (n = 177) from Grades 1 to 3 participated in four episodes of a repeated event and were later asked to recall the time that they remembered ‘best’ and then ‘another time.’ Post-recall, children were asked what they believed ‘the time you remember best’ meant, and how they decided which episode to recall. Older children were better able than younger to understand the prompt and nominate an episode, but children of all ages showed improved ability to produce an episode for discussion when subsequently asked about ‘another time.’ All children struggled to describe their decision-making processes, suggesting that they had yet to develop sufficient metamemory knowledge for the task. Results suggest that children have difficulty explicitly identifying well-remembered episodes of repeated events.Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Psychometric Comparison of Dissociative Experiences Scales II and C: A Weak Trauma-Dissociation Link

Abstract: Summary The debate regarding the relationship between dissociation and trauma has raised questions regarding the validity of measures of dissociation. Dalenberg et al.'s (2012) meta-analysis included studies using the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES II), but excluded the DES-Comparison (DES-C) scale, claiming that it lacked validity as a measure of dissociation. Lynn et al. (2014) contended that omitting those studies might have skewed the results. In the current study, we compared the psychometric properties of both measures in two nonclinical US adult (student, general population) samples to evaluate the convergent and discriminant validity of the scales. We found support for the DES-II as a measure of dissociation as well as the validity and reliability of the DES-C, which compares well to the DES II. Compared with studies in Dalenberg et al., we found lower correlations between trauma and dissociation. No empirical basis exists to exclude studies using the DES-C in literature reviews. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The effects of feedback and reflection on the questioning style of untrained interviewers in simulated child sexual abuse interviews

Abstract: We provided immediate and detailed feedback in a training paradigm in which simulated interviews with computer‐generated avatars were used to improve interviewers' questioning style. Fifty‐nine untrained student/interviewers conducted eight interviews each and were randomly assigned to a control, feedback or feedback and reflection group. Compared to the control group, the groups receiving feedback used a higher percentage of recommended questions and retrieved more relevant details while using a lower percentage of not recommended questions and retrieved less wrong details. Only the groups that received feedback reached a reliable change in the proportion of recommended questions. The reflection intervention proposed in the present study did not enhance training effects above and beyond feedback in the present sample. The present study replicated previous findings regarding the role of feedback in improving the quality of investigative interviews, however, failing to show an effect of reflection. Further studies on different reflection tasks are suggested.

Cognitive Load Theory, Element Interactivity, and the Testing and Reverse Testing Effects

Abstract: Summary: The testing effect arises when learners who are tested rather than relearning material obtain superior scores on a final test than those who relearn. Based on cognitive load theory, six experiments examined whether the effect was evident under low or high element interactivity (a measure of complexity) conditions. Students learning to write types of text were participants. In all experiments, effects on a final common test of two presentations were compared with a single presentation followed by a preliminary test. The testing effect on immediate tests was larger and more likely using lower element interactivity materials. A reverse testing effect was likely on immediate tests tapping higher element interactivity material but possibly eliminated by using a delayed test. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Life Story Chapters, Specific Memories, and Conceptions of the Self

Abstract: Summary Two studies investigated the effects of recalling either life story chapters or specific memories on measures of self-continuity and self-esteem. Participants were assigned to recall important chapters, important specific memories, or impersonal facts, and they provided ratings of emotional tone. Participants also completed trait and state measures of self-continuity, self-esteem, and mood. Although effects of recall condition on state and trait measures were not statistically significant, within-group analyses identified strong and consistent relationships between the positivity of life story chapters and both trait and state self-continuity and self-esteem. In contrast, the positivity of specific memories was related only to state self-esteem. Qualities of life story chapters appear to be more central to enduring conceptions of the self than do qualities of specific life story memories.Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Exploring the Relations between Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) Cognitive Abilities and Mathematics Achievement

Abstract: Summary As standardized measures of cognitive abilities and academic achievement continue to evolve, so do the relations between the constructs represented in these measures. A large, nationally representative sample of school-aged children and youth between 6 and 19 years of age (N = 4,194) was used to systematically evaluate the relations between cognitive abilities and components of academic achievement in mathematics. The cognitive abilities of interest were those identified from the Cattell–Horn–Carroll model of intelligence. Specific areas of mathematics achievement included math calculation skills and math problem solving. Results suggest that fluid reasoning (Gf), comprehension-knowledge (Gc), and processing speed (Gs) have the strongest and most consistent relations with mathematics achievement throughout the school years. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Perceptions of credibility for a memory report of a single versus repeated event

Abstract: Summary: When a person experiences an event that has multiple similar instances (i.e., a repeated event), memories for details that change across instances are challenging to recall. We expected that third parties would perceive memory reports of instances of repeated events as less credible than they would unique (i.e., single) events. Undergraduates participated in a single or repeated event, during which critical details were presented. Participants were asked to recall the session 2 days later, and memory reports were video recorded. New participants then viewed one video and evaluated the credibility of the speaker's memory report. Overall, repeated-event reports were seen as less credible than were single-event reports, despite the reports being equally accurate. Although credibility research in the context of repeated events has focused exclusively on child populations, a range of applications exists for adults (e.g., criminal and industrial eyewitnesses, and asylum seekers); we discussed our findings in these areas.Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

ROCs in Eyewitness Identification: Instructions versus Confidence Ratings

Abstract: Summary From the perspective of signal detection theory, different lineup instructions may induce different levels of response bias. If so, then collecting correct and false identification rates across different instructional conditions will trace out the receiver operating characteristic (ROC)—the same ROC that, theoretically, could also be traced out from a single instruction condition in which each eyewitness decision is accompanied by a confidence rating. We tested whether the two approaches do in fact yield the same ROC. Participants were assigned to a confidence rating condition or to an instructional biasing condition (liberal, neutral, unbiased, or conservative). After watching a video of a mock crime, participants were presented with instructions followed by a six-person simultaneous photo lineup. The ROCs from both methods were similar, but they were not exactly the same. These findings have potentially important policy implications for how the legal system should go about controlling eyewitness response bias.Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Executive Functions in School‐age Children: Influence of Age, Gender, School Type and Parental Education

Abstract: Summary: This study aimed to evaluate whether age, gender, type of school and parental education could predict executive performance in school-age children. Unconstrained, phonemic and semantic verbal fluency tasks (n = 402), as well as the Hayling Sentence Completion Test (n = 275) and the Random Number Generation task (n = 274) were administered to typically developing 6-to-12-year-old children. A hierarchical regression analysis was performed (p ≤ 0.05). The most significant explanatory models involved child age and parental education, as well as these two variables in addition to the type of school attended by the child. The main individual predictors of executive performance were age and school type. These results may be related to structural and functional alterations in the brain, an increased repertoire of cognitive strategies, the effects of education and the intensity of environmental cognitive stimulation. These findings may contribute to the development of stimulation and intervention programs for EF in clinical and educational settings.Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Under High Perceptual Load, Observers Look but Do Not See

Abstract: Summary High perceptual load reduces distractor processing and increases inattentional blindness for unexpected stimuli We reported previously that high perceptual load reduces memory accuracy and impairs eyewitness identification Here, we used eye tracking to investigate whether memory impairments under load are due to inattentional blindness or a failure to visually inspect stimuli Seventy-two participants viewed high or low load versions of a video depicting a theft and identified characters in the video from photographic line-ups High perceptual load impaired participants' ability to identify the peripheral character (witness) but not the central character (thief) There was no effect of perceptual load on number of ocular fixations on the witness, time to first fixation or total visit duration We conclude that memory impairments under load are due to attentional failures rather than differences in visual search behaviour These findings suggest that high perceptual load scenes may hamper eyewitnesses' ability to encode easily visible stimuli Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Misrepresentations and Flawed Logic About the Prevalence of False Memories.

Abstract: Brewin and Andrews (2016) propose that just 15% of people, or even fewer, are susceptible to false childhood memories. If this figure were true, then false memories would still be a serious problem. But the figure is higher than 15%. False memories occur even after a few short and low-pressure interviews, and with each successive interview they become richer, more compelling, and more likely to occur. It is therefore dangerously misleading to claim that the scientific data provide an “upper bound” on susceptibility to memory errors. We also raise concerns about the peer review process.

The Effects of Programme Context on Memory for Humorous Television Commercials: Effects of programme context on memory for humorous TV commercials

Abstract: This study investigated the effects of programme context on memory for humorous television advertisements in South Korean participants. Humorous and non-humorous Korean advertisements were embedded within two programme contexts; humorous and nonhumorous. When the programme ratings of humour, enjoyment and involvement were higher, unaided recall was poorer. In addition, unaided recall of the advertisements was better when they were embedded within a non-humorous programme. However, there was no significant programme-advertisement interaction effect. Overall, both free and cued-recall were higher for humorous advertisements than for the non-humorous advertisements. The findings are

Personal and Intergenerational Narratives of Transgression and Pride in Emerging Adulthood: Links to Gender and Well-Being

Abstract: Summary Intergenerational narratives, stories parents share with children about their own youthful experiences, may facilitate the understanding of challenging life experiences and be related to psychological well-being; yet, little research has examined what young people know of their parents' self-challenging and self-enhancing experiences and how they interpret them. Research examining intergenerational narratives has observed relations between adolescents' narratives and their psychological well-being, but these relations may depend upon gender and narrative type. In the current study, 94 college students provided intergenerational and personal narratives of transgression and pride experiences. Narratives were coded for emotional, cognitive, and evaluative content. Results show that transgression and pride narratives differed in content, and that women provided more interpretative content than men. Stories about mothers contained more interpretative content than fathers, but this pattern varied by participant gender. Finally, relations to well-being were observed, especially for cognitive content in stories of participants' same-gender parent. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Testing Effect is Preserved in Stressful Final Testing Environment

Abstract: Summary Previous studies have shown that retrieval practice leads to better long-term memory than additional study of a material (a phenomenon termed the testing effect). In this study, we compared the effectiveness of these learning strategies when the final test occurs under stress (such as in an exam). Participants studied word pairs; then half of the material was repeatedly studied, whereas the other half was repeatedly tested. Following a 7-day delay, participants were exposed to either a psychosocially stressful situation or a control task, followed by an associative recall task that tested memory for all items. Multiple measures were used to assess stress levels: emotional state assessments as well as assays of salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase levels. Results are in favour of the ecological validity of retrieval-based learning. Participants recalled more retested items than restudied items regardless of being exposed to a stressful situation and the hormonal (cortisol) response to stress.Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Potential for False Memories is Bigger than What Brewin and Andrews Suggest

Abstract: Brewin and Andrews (2016) reviewed the literature on false memory propensity for childhood events In this commentary, we critically evaluate their basic claim that proneness to false memories of childhood experiences is more limited than has been articulated in the literature We show that Brewin and Andrews were selective in their inclusion of false memory studies, thereby ignoring relevant research related to autobiographical false memories Equally important, and in contrast to what Brewin and Andrews claim, we show that implanted false memories elicited by misinformation are characterized by high confidence

Line‐up Fairness Affects Postdictor Validity and ‘Don't Know’ Responses

Abstract: Summary We investigated the impact of filler quality and presence on confidence, response latency, and propensity to respond ‘don't know’ in eyewitness line-ups and showups. More specifically, we tested the hypothesis that confident, fast witnesses would be accurate in fair line-ups and showups, but the inclusion of duds (poor fillers) would break down these relationships in a biased line-up. Participants viewed a mock crime video, made a timed identification decision, and gave a confidence judgment. As predicted, biased line-up witnesses were fast and confident, regardless of accuracy, and rarely responded ‘don't know’. In addition, we found that witnesses who are the fastest and most confident were equally accurate in fair line-ups and showups, and both were better than biased line-ups. These findings suggest that biased line-ups should not be used (although, unfortunately, they frequently are); in fact, it may be better to conduct a showup than a biased line-up. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Impact of Breaks on Sustained Attention in a Simulated, Semi‐Automated Train Control Task

Abstract: Summary: Sustained attention is a factor in many work environments where operators intervene on a regular basis to ensure the safety and security of a system. Different types of activity during break periods may facilitate different levels of performance following extended periods of attention in these environments. The impact of five different breaks from task activity was assessed against the performance of a no-break control group during a simulated, high signal probability rail control task. A total of 87 university students were assigned to a no-break control condition, or one of five break activity conditions that occurred between two, 20-minute periods of simulated rail control. Post-break, the analysis revealed that, in comparison to the control condition, performance was greater in all of the five break conditions. Any activity that drew operators' attention from the primary rail control task enabled improvements in performance beyond a no-break control task.Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.