Showing papers in "Fems Microbiology Reviews in 2007"

Indole-3-acetic acid in microbial and microorganism-plant signaling.

Abstract: Diverse bacterial species possess the ability to produce the auxin phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). Different biosynthesis pathways have been identified and redundancy for IAA biosynthesis is widespread among plant-associated bacteria. Interactions between IAA-producing bacteria and plants lead to diverse outcomes on the plant side, varying from pathogenesis to phytostimulation. Reviewing the role of bacterial IAA in different microorganism–plant interactions highlights the fact that bacteria use this phytohormone to interact with plants as part of their colonization strategy, including phytostimulation and circumvention of basal plant defense mechanisms. Moreover, several recent reports indicate that IAA can also be a signaling molecule in bacteria and therefore can have a direct effect on bacterial physiology. This review discusses past and recent data, and emerging views on IAA, a well-known phytohormone, as a microbial metabolic and signaling molecule.

Yeast responses to stresses associated with industrial brewery handling.

Abstract: During brewery handling, production strains of yeast must respond to fluctuations in dissolved oxygen concentration, pH, osmolarity, ethanol concentration, nutrient supply and temperature. Fermentation performance of brewing yeast strains is dependent on their ability to adapt to these changes, particularly during batch brewery fermentation which involves the recycling (repitching) of a single yeast culture (slurry) over a number of fermentations (generations). Modern practices, such as the use of high-gravity worts and preparation of dried yeast for use as an inoculum, have increased the magnitude of the stresses to which the cell is subjected. The ability of yeast to respond effectively to these conditions is essential not only for beer production but also for maintaining the fermentation fitness of yeast for use in subsequent fermentations. During brewery handling, cells inhabit a complex environment and our understanding of stress responses under such conditions is limited. The advent of techniques capable of determining genomic and proteomic changes within the cell is likely vastly to improve our knowledge of yeast stress responses during industrial brewery handling.

Diversity of enterococcal bacteriocins and their grouping in a new classification scheme.

Abstract: Enterococci are lactic acid bacteria of importance in food, public health and medical microbiology. Many strains produce bacteriocins, some of which have been well characterized. This review describes the structural and genetic characteristics of enterocins, the bacteriocins produced by enterococci. Some of these can be grouped with typical bacteriocins produced by lactic acid bacteria according to traditional classification, whereas others are atypical and structurally distinct from the general classes of bacteriocins. These atypical enterocins recently played an important role in and prompted reclassification of the class II bacteriocins into a new scheme. In this review, a more simplified classification scheme for enterocins based on amino acid sequence homologies is proposed. Enterocins are of interest for their diversity and potential for use as food biopreservatives. The emergence of multiple antibiotic-resistant enterococci among agents of nosocomial disease and the presence of virulence factors among food isolates requires a careful safety evaluation of isolates intended for potential biotechnical use. Nevertheless, enterococcal bacteriocins produced by heterologous hosts or added as cell-free preparations may still be attractive for application in food preservation.

Genomics of IncP-1 antibiotic resistance plasmids isolated from wastewater treatment plants provides evidence for a widely accessible drug resistance gene pool

Abstract: The dramatic spread of antibiotic resistance is a crisis in the treatment of infectious diseases that affect humans Several studies suggest that wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) are reservoirs for diverse mobile antibiotic resistance elements This review summarizes findings derived from genomic analysis of IncP-1 resistance plasmids isolated from WWTP bacteria Plasmids that belong to the IncP-1 group are self-transmissible, and transfer to and replicate in a wide range of hosts Their backbone functions are described with respect to their impact on vegetative replication, stable maintenance and inheritance, mobility and plasmid control Accessory genetic modules, mainly representing mobile genetic elements, are integrated in-between functional plasmid backbone modules These elements carry determinants conferring resistance to nearly all clinically relevant antimicrobial drug classes, to heavy metals, and quaternary ammonium compounds used as disinfectants All plasmids analysed here contain integrons that potentially facilitate integration, exchange and dissemination of resistance gene cassettes Comparative genomics of accessory modules located on plasmids from WWTP and corresponding modules previously identified in other bacterial genomes revealed that animal, human and plant pathogens and other bacteria isolated from different habitats share a common pool of resistance determinants

Cyanobacterial hydrogenases: diversity, regulation and applications

Abstract: Cyanobacteria may possess two distinct nickel-iron (NiFe)-hydrogenases: an uptake enzyme found in N(2)-fixing strains, and a bidirectional one present in both non-N(2)-fixing and N(2)-fixing strains. The uptake hydrogenase (encoded by hupSL) catalyzes the consumption of the H(2) produced during N(2) fixation, while the bidirectional enzyme (hoxEFUYH) probably plays a role in fermentation and/or acts as an electron valve during photosynthesis. hupSL constitute a transcriptional unit, and are essentially transcribed under N(2)-fixing conditions. The bidirectional hydrogenase consists of a hydrogenase and a diaphorase part, and the corresponding five hox genes are not always clustered or cotranscribed. The biosynthesis/maturation of NiFe-hydrogenases is highly complex, requiring several core proteins. In cyanobacteria, the genes that are thought to affect hydrogenases pleiotropically (hyp), as well as the genes presumably encoding the hydrogenase-specific endopeptidases (hupW and hoxW) have been identified and characterized. Furthermore, NtcA and LexA have been implicated in the transcriptional regulation of the uptake and the bidirectional enzyme respectively. Recently, the phylogenetic origin of cyanobacterial and algal hydrogenases was analyzed, and it was proposed that the current distribution in cyanobacteria reflects a differential loss of genes according to their ecological needs or constraints. In addition, the possibilities and challenges of cyanobacterial-based H(2) production are addressed.

Aeons of distress: an evolutionary perspective on the bacterial SOS response.

Abstract: The SOS response of bacteria is a global regulatory network targeted at addressing DNA damage. Governed by the products of the lexA and recA genes, it co-ordinates a comprehensive response against DNA lesions and its description in Escherichia coli has stood for years as a textbook paradigm of stress-response systems in bacteria. In this paper we review the current state of research on the SOS response outside E. coli. By retracing research on the identification of multiple diverging LexA-binding motifs across the Bacteria Domain, we show how this work has led to the description of a minimum regulon core, but also of a heterogeneous collection of SOS regulatory networks that challenges many tenets of the E. coli model. We also review recent attempts at reconstructing the evolutionary history of the SOS network that have cast new light on the SOS response. Exploiting the newly gained knowledge on LexA-binding motifs and the tight association of LexA with a recently described mutagenesis cassette, these works put forward likely evolutionary scenarios for the SOS response, and we discuss their relevance on the ultimate nature of this stress-response system and the evolutionary pressures driving its evolution.

Carnobacterium: positive and negative effects in the environment and in foods.

Abstract: The genus Carnobacterium contains nine species, but only C. divergens and C. maltaromaticum are frequently isolated from natural environments and foods. They are tolerant to freezing/thawing and high pressure and able to grow at low temperatures, anaerobically and with increased CO2 concentrations. They metabolize arginine and various carbohydrates, including chitin, and this may improve their survival in the environment. Carnobacterium divergens and C. maltaromaticum have been extensively studied as protective cultures in order to inhibit growth of Listeria monocytogenes in fish and meat products. Several carnobacterial bacteriocins are known, and parameters that affect their production have been described. Currently, however, no isolates are commercially applied as protective cultures. Carnobacteria can spoil chilled foods, but spoilage activity shows intraspecies and interspecies variation. The responsible spoilage metabolites are not well characterized, but branched alcohols and aldehydes play a partial role. Their production of tyramine in foods is critical for susceptible individuals, but carnobacteria are not otherwise human pathogens. Carnobacterium maltaromaticum can be a fish pathogen, although carnobacteria are also suggested as probiotic cultures for use in aquaculture. Representative genome sequences are not yet available, but would be valuable to answer questions associated with fundamental and applied aspects of this important genus.

Conquering the Meningococcus

Abstract: Since the first outbreaks of meningococcal meningitis were first described in Geneva in 1804 and in New England in 1806, and since the discovery of the causative agent by Weichselbaum in 1887 and the beginning of epidemics of meningococcal meningitis in the sub-Saharan Africa ∼100 years ago, Neisseria meningitidis has been recognized as the cause worldwide of epidemic meningitis and meningococcemia The massive epidemic outbreaks in sub-Saharan Africa in the 1990's, the emergence since 1995 of serogroups Y, W-135 and X and the prolonged outbreak of serogroup B meningococcal disease in New Zealand over the last decade serve to remind us of the continued potential of the meningococcus to cause global morbidity and mortality This report reviews new discoveries impacting prevention and future prospects for conquering the meningococcus as a human pathogen

Regulators of bacterial responses to nitric oxide

Abstract: Nitric oxide (NO) is an intermediate of the respiratory pathway known as denitrification, and is a by-product of anaerobic nitrite respiration in the enteric Bacteria. Pathogens are also exposed to NO inside host phagocytes, and possibly in other host niches as well. In recent years it has become apparent that there are multiple regulatory systems in prokaryotes that mediate responses to NO exposure. Owing to its reactivity, NO also has the potential to perturb the activities of other regulatory proteins, which are not necessarily directly involved in the response to NO. This review describes the current state of understanding of regulatory systems that respond to NO. An emerging trend is the predominance of iron proteins among the known physiological NO sensors.

Lessons from meningococcal carriage studies.

Abstract: Neisseria meningitidis, an obligate commensal of humans, normally colonizes the mucosa of the upper respiratory tract without affecting the host, a phenomenon known as carriage. In Europe, as much as 35% of young adults are carriers at a given time. Recent studies using molecular methods for clone identification have demonstrated the extensive genetic diversity of the strains isolated from carriers, in comparison with a limited number of hypervirulent strains associated with invasive disease. Published studies and new data generated through the framework of the EU-MenNet clearly indicated significant differences in pathogenicity between meningococcal clones and in the distribution of multilocus sequence types among isolates from asymptomatic carriers among European countries; simultaneous carriage of more than one meningococcal strain in the throat is rare, but occasionally occurs; and the commensal association of particular clones with a host is a long-term relationship, often lasting several months. Further investigations of the carrier state are warranted to improve our understanding of the epidemiology and pathogenesis of meningococcal disease, as well as to support the introduction and to measure the impact of mass vaccination.

Molecular typing of meningococci: recommendations for target choice and nomenclature

Abstract: The diversity and dynamics of Neisseria meningitidis populations generate a requirement for high resolution, comprehensive, and portable typing schemes for meningococcal disease surveillance. Molecular approaches, specifically DNA amplification and sequencing, are the methods of choice for various reasons, including: their generic nature and portability, comprehensive coverage, and ready implementation to culture negative clinical specimens. The following target genes are recommended: (1) the variable regions of the antigen-encoding genes porA and fetA and, if additional resolution is required, the porB gene for rapid investigation of disease outbreaks and investigating the distribution of antigenic variants; (2) the seven multilocus sequence typing loci-these data are essential for the most effective national, and international management of meningococcal disease, as well as being invaluable in studies of meningococcal population biology and evolution. These targets have been employed extensively in reference laboratories throughout the world and validated protocols have been published. It is further recommended that a modified nomenclature be adopted of the form: serogroup: PorA type: FetA type: sequence type (clonal complex), thus: B: P1.19,15: F5-1: ST-33 (cc32).

Quorum sensing in Serratia.

Abstract: Many bacteria use cell-cell communication to monitor their population density, synchronize their behaviour and socially interact. This communication results in a coordinated gene regulation and is generally called quorum sensing. In gram-negative bacteria, the most common quorum signal molecules are acylated homoserine lactones (AHLs), although other low-molecular-mass signalling molecules have been described such as Autoinducer-2 (AI-2). The phenotypes that are regulated in Serratia species by means of AHLs are remarkably diverse and of profound biological and ecological significance, and often interconnected with other global regulators. Furthermore, AHL- and AI-2-mediated systems (less profoundly studied) are continuously being discovered and explored in Serratia spp., many having interesting twists on the basic theme. Therefore, this review will highlight the current known quorum sensing systems in Serratia spp., including the important nosocomial pathogen Serratia marcescens.

Cold response in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: new functions for old mechanisms

Abstract: The response of yeast cells to sudden temperature downshifts has received little attention compared with other stress conditions. Like other organisms, both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, in Saccharomyces cerevisiae a decrease in temperature induces the expression of many genes involved in transcription and translation, some of which display a cold-sensitivity phenotype. However, little is known about the role played by many cold-responsive genes, the sensing and regulatory mechanisms that control this response or the biochemical adaptations at or near 0°C. This review focuses on the physiological significance of cold-shock responses, emphasizing the molecular mechanisms that generate and transmit cold signals. There is now enough experimental evidence to conclude that exposure to low temperature protects yeast cells against freeze injury through the cold-induced accumulation of trehalose, glycerol and heat-shock proteins. Recent results also show that changes in membrane fluidity are the primary signal triggering the cold-shock response. Notably, this signal is transduced and regulated through classical stress pathways and transcriptional factors, the high-osmolarity glycerol mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway and Msn2/4p. Alternative cold-stress generators and transducers will also be presented and discussed.

A surveillance network for meningococcal disease in Europe

Abstract: Between 1999 and 2004, the European Union Invasive Bacterial Infections Surveillance Network (EU-IBIS) received c. 50,000 reports of meningococcal disease from 27 participating countries. Analysis has demonstrated a major decline in the incidence of invasive disease in those countries that have introduced routine vaccination against serogroup C infection. The establishment of rapid reporting of W135 and B2a/B2b strains has been able to provide early reassurance that these strains are not emerging as major public health problems in Europe. Between September 2001 and February 2005, the EU-MenNet project offered further opportunities for enhancing this data resource. Collaborative projects included: improving the EU-IBIS website; reviewing case ascertainment in Europe; reviewing cost-effectiveness studies for meningococcal serogroup C conjugate (MCC) vaccination; international comparisons of MCC vaccine efficacy; and mathematical modelling studies. In addition, linking of data from the European Meningococcal Multi-locus Sequence Type Centre to epidemiological data was performed. Particular clonal complexes were found to be preferentially associated with certain serogroups. Case fatality was also found to vary with clonal complex, suggesting that genotype can be a marker for hypervirulence. The importance of close collaboration between networks of epidemiologists, microbiologists, and the wider scientific and public health community is demonstrated.

Molecular mechanisms of pathogenicity: how do pathogenic microorganisms develop cross-kingdom host jumps?

Abstract: It is common knowledge that pathogenic viruses can change hosts, with avian influenza, the HIV, and the causal agent of variant Creutzfeldt-Jacob encephalitis as well-known examples. Less well known, however, is that host jumps also occur with more complex pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. In extreme cases, these host jumps even cross kingdom of life barriers. A number of requirements need to be met to enable a microorganism to cross such kingdom barriers. Potential cross-kingdom pathogenic microorganisms must be able to come into close and frequent contact with potential hosts, and must be able to overcome or evade host defences. Reproduction on, in, or near the new host will ensure the transmission or release of successful genotypes. An unexpectedly high number of cross-kingdom host shifts of bacterial and fungal pathogens are described in the literature. Interestingly, the molecular mechanisms underlying these shifts show commonalities. The evolution of pathogenicity towards novel hosts may be based on traits that were originally developed to ensure survival in the microorganism's original habitat, including former hosts.

Vaccination against meningococcal disease in Europe: review and recommendations for the use of conjugate vaccines

Abstract: At the end of 2005, six European countries had implemented public immunization campaigns with serogroup C conjugate vaccines, and all had experienced substantial declines in the incidence of serogroup C disease. A quadrivalent ACWY meningococcal vaccine is in use in the USA, but serogroup A is extremely rare in Europe and serogroups Y and W135 are infrequent causes of disease. This paper outlines recommendations on the use of conjugate vaccines in Europe based on the experience with meningococcal C conjugate (MCC) vaccines so far.

Fungal ribotoxins: molecular dissection of a family of natural killers

Abstract: RNase T1 is the best known representative of a large family of ribonucleolytic proteins secreted by fungi, mostly Aspergillus and Penicillium species. Ribotoxins stand out among them by their cytotoxic character. They exert their toxic action by first entering the cells and then cleaving a single phosphodiester bond located within a universally conserved sequence of the large rRNA gene, known as the sarcin–ricin loop. This cleavage leads to inhibition of protein biosynthesis, followed by cellular death by apoptosis. Although no protein receptor has been found for ribotoxins, they preferentially kill cells showing altered membrane permeability, such as those that are infected with virus or transformed. Many steps of the cytotoxic process have been elucidated at the molecular level by means of a variety of methodological approaches and the construction and purification of different mutant versions of these ribotoxins. Ribotoxins have been used for the construction of immunotoxins, because of their cytotoxicity. Besides this activity, Aspf1, a ribotoxin produced by Aspergillus fumigatus, has been shown to be one of the major allergens involved in allergic aspergillosis-related pathologies. Protein engineering and peptide synthesis have been used in order to understand the basis of these pathogenic mechanisms as well as to produce hypoallergenic proteins with potential diagnostic and immunotherapeutic applications.

Multilocus sequence typing for global surveillance of meningococcal disease

Abstract: The global surveillance of bacterial pathogens is particularly important for bacteria with diverse and dynamic populations that cause periodic epidemics or pandemics. The isolate characterization methods employed for surveillance should: (1) generate unambiguous data; (2) be readily implemented in a variety of scenarios and be reproducible among laboratories; (3) be scalable and preferably available in a high throughput format; and (4) be cost effective. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) was designed to meet these criteria and has been implemented effectively for a wide range of microorganisms. The 'Impact of meningococcal epidemiology and population biology on public health in Europe (EU-MenNet)' project had amongst its objectives: (1) to disseminate meningococcal MLST and sequence-based typing throughout Europe by establishing a centre for training and data generation, and (2) to produce a comprehensive Europe-wide picture of meningococcal disease epidemiology for the first time. Data produced from the project have shown the distribution of a relatively small number of STs, clonal complexes and PorA types that account for a large proportion of the disease-associated isolates in Europe. The project demonstrates how molecular typing can be combined with epidemiological data via the Internet for global disease surveillance.

Ectomycorrhizal fungi : exploring the mycelial frontier

Abstract: Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi form mutualistic symbioses with many tree species and are regarded as key organisms in nutrient and carbon cycles in forest ecosystems. Our appreciation of their roles in these processes is hampered by a lack of understanding of their soil-borne mycelial systems. These mycelia represent the vegetative thalli of ECM fungi that link carbon-yielding tree roots with soil nutrients, yet we remain largely ignorant of their distribution, dynamics and activities in forest soils. In this review we consider information derived from investigations of fruiting bodies, ECM root tips and laboratory-based microcosm studies, and conclude that these provide only limited insights into soil-borne ECM mycelial communities. Recent advances in understanding soil-borne mycelia of ECM fungi have arisen from the combined use of molecular technologies and novel field experimentation. These approaches have the potential to provide unprecedented insights into the functioning of ECM mycelia at the ecosystem level, particularly in the context of land-use changes and global climate change.

The biology of lantibiotics from the lacticin 481 group is coming of age.

Abstract: Lantibiotics are antimicrobial peptides from the bacteriocin family, secreted by Gram-positive bacteria. These peptides differ from other bacteriocins by the presence of (methyl)lanthionine residues, which result from enzymatic modification of precursor peptides encoded by structural genes. Several groups of lantibiotics have been distinguished, the largest of which is the lacticin 481 group. This group consists of at least 16 members, including lacticin 481, streptococcin A-FF22, mutacin II, nukacin ISK-1, and salivaricins. We present the first review devoted to this lantibiotic group, knowledge of which has increased significantly within the last few years. After updating the group composition and defining the common properties of these lantibiotics, we highlight the most recent developments. The latter concern: transcriptional regulation of the lantibiotic genes; understanding the biosynthetic machinery, in particular the ability to perform in vitro prepeptide maturation; characterization of a novel type of immunity protein; and broad application possibilities. This group differs in many aspects from the best known lantibiotic group (nisin group), but shares properties with less-studied groups such as the mersacidin, cytolysin and lactocin S groups.

Biochemistry and molecular biology of exocellular fungal β‐(1,3)‐ and β‐(1,6)‐glucanases

Abstract: Many fungi produce exocellular β-glucan-degrading enzymes, the β-glucanases including the noncellulolytic β-(1,3)- and β-(1,6)-glucanases, degrading β-(1,3)- and β-(1,6)-glucans. An ability to purify several exocellular β-glucanases attacking the same linkage type from a single fungus is common, although unlike the β-1,3-glucanases, production of multiple β-1,6-glucanases is quite rare in fungi. Reasons for this multiplicity remain unclear and the multiple forms may not be genetically different but arise by posttranslational glycosylation or proteolytic degradation of the single enzyme. How their synthesis is regulated, and whether each form is regulated differentially also needs clarifying. Their industrial potential will only be realized when the genes encoding them are cloned and expressed in large quantities. This review considers what is known in molecular terms about their multiplicity of occurrence, regulation of synthesis and phylogenetic diversity. It discusses how this information assists in understanding their functions in the fungi producing them. It deals largely with exocellular β-glucanases which here refers to those recoverable after the cells are removed, since those associated with fungal cell walls have been reviewed recently by Adams (2004). It also updates the earlier review by Pitson et al. (1993).

A postgenomic view of the heat shock proteins in kinetoplastids

Abstract: The kinetoplastids Leishmania major, Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma cruzi are causative agents of a diverse spectrum of human diseases: leishmaniasis, sleeping sickness and Chagas' disease, respectively. These protozoa possess digenetic life cycles that involve development in mammalian and insect hosts. It is generally accepted that temperature is a triggering factor of the developmental programme allowing the adaptation of the parasite to the mammalian conditions. The heat shock response is a general homeostatic mechanism that protects cells from the deleterious effects of environmental stresses, such as heat. This response is universal and includes the synthesis of the heat-shock proteins (HSPs). In this review, we summarize the salient features of the different HSP families and describe their main cellular functions. In parallel, we analyse the composition of these families in kinetoplastids according to literature data and our understanding of genome sequence data. The genome sequences of these parasites have been recently completed. The HSP families described here are: HSP110, HSP104, group I chaperonins, HSP90, HSP70, HSP40 and small HSPs. All these families are widely represented in these parasites. In particular, kinetoplastids possess an unprecedented number of members of the HSP70, HSP60 and HSP40 families, suggesting key roles for these HSPs in their biology.

Regulation of the initiation of chromosomal replication in bacteria.

Abstract: The initiation of chromosomal replication occurs only once during the cell cycle in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Initiation of chromosome replication is the first and tightly controlled step of a DNA synthesis. Bacterial chromosome replication is initiated at a single origin, oriC, by the initiator protein DnaA, which specifically interacts with 9-bp nonpalindromic sequences (DnaA boxes) at oriC. In Escherichia coli, a model organism used to study the mechanism of DNA replication and its regulation, the control of initiation relies on a reduction of the availability and/or activity of the two key elements, DnaA and the oriC region. This review summarizes recent research into the regulatory mechanisms of the initiation of chromosomal replication in bacteria, with emphasis on organisms other than E. coli.

Rho GTPase‐activating bacterial toxins: from bacterial virulence regulation to eukaryotic cell biology

Abstract: Studies on the interactions of bacterial pathogens with their host have provided an invaluable source of information on the major functions of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell biology In addition, this expanding field of research, known as cellular microbiology, has revealed fascinating examples of trans-kingdom functional interplay Bacterial factors actually exploit eukaryotic cell machineries using refined molecular strategies to promote invasion and proliferation within their host Here, we review a family of bacterial toxins that modulate their activity in eukaryotic cells by activating Rho GTPases and exploiting the ubiquitin/proteasome machineries This family, found in human and animal pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria, encompasses the cytotoxic necrotizing factors (CNFs) from Escherichia coli and Yersinia species as well as dermonecrotic toxins from Bordetella species We survey the genetics, biochemistry, molecular and cellular biology of these bacterial factors from the standpoint of the CNF1 toxin, the paradigm of Rho GTPase-activating toxins produced by urinary tract infections causing pathogenic Escherichia coli Because it reveals important connections between bacterial invasion and the host inflammatory response, the mode of action of CNF1 and its related Rho GTPase-targetting toxins addresses major issues of basic and medical research and constitutes a privileged experimental model for host-pathogen interaction

Mycothiol-dependent proteins in actinomycetes

Abstract: The pseudodisaccharide mycothiol is present in millimolar levels as the dominant thiol in most species of Actinomycetales. The primary role of mycothiol is to maintain the intracellular redox homeostasis. As such, it acts as an electron acceptor/donor and serves as a cofactor in detoxification reactions for alkylating agents, free radicals and xenobiotics. In addition, like glutathione, mycothiol may be involved in catabolic processes with an essential role for growth on recalcitrant chemicals such as aromatic compounds. Following a little over a decade of research since the discovery of mycothiol in 1994, we summarize the current knowledge about the role of mycothiol as an enzyme cofactor and consider possible mycothiol-dependent enzymes.

Bacterial group II introns : not just splicing

Abstract: Group II introns are both catalytic RNAs (ribozymes) and mobile retroelements that were discovered almost 14 years ago. It has been suggested that eukaryotic mRNA introns might have originated from the group II introns present in the alphaproteobacterial progenitor of the mitochondria. Bacterial group II introns are of considerable interest not only because of their evolutionary significance, but also because they could potentially be used as tools for genetic manipulation in biotechnology and for gene therapy. This review summarizes what is known about the splicing mechanisms and mobility of bacterial group II introns, and describes the recent development of group II intron-based gene-targetting methods. Bacterial group II intron diversity, evolutionary relationships, and behaviour in bacteria are also discussed.

Biology and pathogenesis of Fonsecaea pedrosoi, the major etiologic agent of chromoblastomycosis.

Abstract: Fonsecaea pedrosoi is the principal etiologic agent of chromoblastomycosis, a fungal disease whose pathogenic events are poorly understood. Treatment of the disease presents poor effectiveness and serious side effects. The disease is epidemiologically important in several regions, which has stimulated studies focused on the biology and pathogenic potential of its major causative agent. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the biological aspects of F. pedrosoi, including cell differentiation and pathogenic mechanisms during the interaction of fungi with different hosts' elements.

DNA interstrand cross-link repair in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Abstract: DNA interstrand cross-links (ICL) present a formidable challenge to the cellular DNA repair apparatus. For Escherichia coli, a pathway which combines nucleotide excision repair (NER) and homologous recombination repair (HRR) to eliminate ICL has been characterized in detail, both genetically and biochemically. Mechanisms of ICL repair in eukaryotes have proved more difficult to define, primarily as a result of the fact that several pathways appear compete for ICL repair intermediates, and also because these competing activities are regulated in the cell cycle. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has proven a powerful tool for dissecting ICL repair. Important roles for NER, HRR and postreplication/translesion synthesis pathways have all been identified. Here we review, with reference to similarities and differences in higher eukaryotes, what has been discovered to date concerning ICL repair in this simple eukaryote.

Fungal nucleobase transporters.

Abstract: Early genetic and physiological work in bacteria and fungi has suggested the presence of highly specific nucleobase transport systems. Similar transport systems are now known to exist in algae, plants, protozoa and metazoa. Within the last 15 years, a small number of microbial genes encoding nucleobase transporters have been cloned and studied in great detail. The sequences of several other putative proteins submitted to databases are homologous to the microbial nucleobase transporters but their physiological functions remain largely undetermined. In this review, genetic, biochemical and molecular data are described concerning mostly the nucleobase transporters of Aspergillus nidulans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the two model ascomycetes from which the great majority of data come from. It is also discussed as to what is known on the nucleobase transporters of the two most significant pathogenic fungi: Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus. Apart from highlighting how a basic process such as nucleobase recognition and transport operates, this review intends to highlight features that might be applicable to antifungal pharmacology.

FGL chaperone-assembled fimbrial polyadhesins: anti-immune armament of Gram-negative bacterial pathogens.

Abstract: This review summarizes the current knowledge on the structure, function, assembly, and biomedical applications of the family of adhesive fimbrial organelles assembled on the surface of Gram-negative pathogens via the FGL chaperone/usher pathway. Recent studies revealed the unique structural and functional properties of these organelles, distinguishing them from a related family, FGS chaperone-assembled adhesive pili. The FGL chaperone-assembled organelles consist of linear polymers of one or two types of protein subunits, each possessing one or two independent adhesive sites specific to different host cell receptors. This structural organization enables these fimbrial organelles to function as polyadhesins. Fimbrial polyadhesins may ensure polyvalent fastening of bacteria to the host cells, aggregating their receptors and triggering subversive signals that allow pathogens to evade immune defense. The FGL chaperone-assembled fimbrial polyadhesins are attractive targets for vaccine and drug design.