Showing papers in "Human Relations in 1996"
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used theory on contract violation to help integrate the diverse literature on cynicism and develop plausible propositions concerning some of the predictors and moderators of employee cynicism, including frustration, hopelessness, and disillusionment, as well as contempt toward and distrust of business organizations, executives, and other objects in the workplace.
Abstract: Employee cynicism is an attitude characterized by frustration, hopelessness, and disillusionment, as well as contempt toward and distrust of business organizations, executives, and/or other objects in the workplace. This paper uses theory on contract violation to help integrate the diverse literature on cynicism and develop plausible propositions concerning some of the predictors and moderators of employee cynicism. First, the pertinent theory and research on cynicism is reviewed. Four specific domains of research are discussed in terms of their relevance to cynicism in an organizational setting. Next, the literature on psychological and implied contracts and their violation is presented as a framework for the study of employee cynicism. Finally, hypothetical linkages between cynicism and specific characteristics of the contemporary workplace are explored, offering propositions for future research.
550 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a theoretically-driven model of self-managing work team effectiveness is defined as both high performance and employee quality of work life, which is tested with structural equations modeling.
Abstract: This paper tests a theoretically-driven model of self-managing work team effectiveness. Self-managing work team effectiveness is defined as both high performance and employee quality of work life. Drawing on different theoretical perspectives including work design, self-leadership, sociotechnical, and participative management, four categories of variables are theorized to predict self-managing work team effectiveness: group task design, encouraging supervisor behaviors, group characteristics, and employee involvement context. Data is collected from both a set of self-managing and traditionally managed teams from a large telephone company, and the model is tested with structural equations modeling. Support is found for hypotheses concerning group task design, group characteristics, and employee involvement context, but not encouraging supervisory behaviors.
544 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors test hypotheses on the value/structure relationship between organizational values and organizational structure and show that there is a fit between elite values and the nature of the institutionally prescribed organizational archetype.
Abstract: Recent developments in organizational theory emphasize the need to examine the relationship between organizational values and structure. Values underpin organizational structure and give it meaning. Drawing on concepts of culture, institutional theory, and archetypes, this paper tests hypotheses on the value/structure relationship. The sample used for the study was a set of Canadian amateur sport organizations undergoing institutional change. This test shows that there is a fit between elite values and the nature of the institutionally prescribed organizational archetype.
479 citations
TL;DR: The perceptions of organizational politics model proposed by Ferris, Russ, and Fandt (1989) was tested in this article, and reasonably strong support was found for most of the linkages in the model, including the moderating effects of control and understanding, and the mediating effects between predictors and outcomes.
Abstract: The perceptions of organizational politics model proposed by Ferris, Russ, and Fandt (1989) was tested in this study, and reasonably strong support was found for most of the linkages in the model, including the moderating effects of control and understanding, and the mediating effects of politics between predictors and outcomes. Furthermore, politics was characterized as a potential source of stress in the work environment, contributing to our understanding of the dynamics of politics in organizations. The results of the present study are discussed in light of the implications and directions for future research.
426 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a causal model which comes from the research of Price-Mueller and their colleagues is used to explain career intent among physicians at a U.S. Air Force hospital.
Abstract: The research reported in this paper attempts to explain variation in career intent among physicians at a U.S. Air Force hospital. A causal model which comes from the research of Price-Mueller and their colleagues is used to explain career intent. The model is estimated with data collected from Wilford Hall Medical Center, the U.S. Air Force's tertiary-care center. Data were collected by questionnaires and from records. The variables are assessed with widely used organizational measures which are generally valid and reliable. Data are analyzed by ordinary least squares regression analysis. Seven variables are the most important in explaining career intent: organizational commitment, job satisfaction, search behavior, opportunity, met expectations, positive affectivity, and promotional chances. The causal model that has been tested primarily for female employees in civilian hospitals was found to operate just as well among male physicians in a military hospital. Forty-one percent of the variance in career i...
354 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors assess the role of corporate cultural fit, autonomy removal, and commitment of managers to the merger in predicting effective integration between merger partners in different industry sectors, and the relationships between, and role of, these variables are found to be complex; they vary across industries and have different relationships with different measures of performance.
Abstract: While cultural fit has been acknowledged to be a potentially important factor in mergers and acquisitions, the concept has been ill-defined. Hence, its relationships to other human aspects in mergers have not been rigorously examined. Further, the relationships between cultural differences and other human factors to the effectiveness of the integration process and financial performance have not been subject to rigorous research that use relatively large samples of mergers and acquisitions. The present study assesses the role of corporate cultural fit, autonomy removal, and commitment of managers to the merger in predicting effective integration between merger partners in different industry sectors. The relationships between, and role of, these variables are found to be complex; they vary across industries and have different relationships with different measures of performance.
343 citations
TL;DR: The notion of communities-of-practice is introduced in this paper as a core concept to highlight the paradoxical processes of inertia and change centered on groups, and a series of examples is drawn from a recent action research project in order to illustrate the possibilities for applying learning theory.
Abstract: The management of change has become characterized by an atheoretical pragmatism, overfocused on the political aspects of the change process. Emerging interest in the learning organization provides an occasion to remedy this, by developing a theory of change which is more congruent with the requirement to build learning capacity within organizations. The result should be to place learning theory more centrally within the theory of planned organizational change. This should also reinvigorate action research by defining a wider range of learning technologies and perspectives. The argument is developed by first reviewing theories of learning employed in organizational change. The notion of communities-of-practice is then developed as a core concept to highlight the paradoxical processes of inertia and change centered on groups. A series of examples is then drawn from a recent action research project in order to illustrate the possibilities for applying learning theory. Finally, a research agenda is set out fo...
341 citations
TL;DR: This article found that support derived from others at the workplace can contribute significantly in buffering individuals against job dissatisfaction, proactive job search, and noncompliant job behaviors when their job security is at stake.
Abstract: The moderating effects of work-based support on the relationship between job insecurity and several work-related outcomes, namely (i) job dissatisfaction, (ii) proactive job search, (iii) noncompliant job behaviors; and nonwork based support on the relationship between job insecurity and a nonwork-related outcome, (iv) life dissatisfaction, were examined. Data were gathered through a mail survey to MBA graduates of a large northeastern university in the U.S. The findings of this study suggested that support derived from others at the workplace can contribute significantly in buffering individuals against job dissatisfaction, proactive job search, and noncompliant job behaviors when their job security is at stake. Equally important is support provided by family and friends which may buffer individuals against negative outcomes such as life dissatisfaction associated with job insecurity. Implications of the study are discussed.
327 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors developed a process by which leadership teams in Alpha Technologies' many business units could develop an organization capable of implementing strategy and learning by self-diagnosis and redesign process between 1988 and 1994.
Abstract: Acting as consultants, the authors developed a process by which leadership teams in Alpha Technologies' many business units could develop an organization capable of implementing strategy and learning. Leadership teams of 20 units implemented the self-diagnosis and redesign process between 1988 and 1994. The process was designed to develop the ongoing capacity of the client organization to achieve systemic change, to surface undiscussible data about barriers, as well as to develop a partnership with employees. Research was conducted to determine whether the intervention achieved its intended objectives, as well as to understand the elements of the intervention design, and managerial and organizational context that lead to these results. The research, funded by the Harvard Business School, relied on the following methods: content analysis of task force reports, interviews, questionnaires, and participant observation. The process succeeded in the short term in all of its attended objectives. The process, how...
229 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the effect of organizational commitment as a moderator of the stress-outcome relationship was examined and it was predicted that commitment buffered the negative outcomes in terms of job satisfaction, mental and physical health, and intention to quit.
Abstract: The study attempted to examine the effect of organizational commitment as a moderator of the stress-outcome relationship. In all, 106 (39 male, 67 female) professional and administrative officers from various departments of a public sector organization each completed a set of questionnaires which consisted of the Occupational Stress Indicator (OSI) which has six subscales relating to stressors, six relating to coping strategies, three relating to Type A, three to locus of control as well as three outcome measures: mental health, physical health and a five subscale job satisfaction measure. The Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) and a single item for intention to quit was also completed. According to previous findings (Begley & Czajka, 1993), individuals with high organizational commitment suffered less negative outcomes in terms of job satisfaction, mental and physical health, and intention to quit as compared to those who were less committed. Therefore it was predicted that commitment buffered...
217 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compared four major self-report measures of organizational culture measuring organizational behavioral norms or values by correlational and factor analysis and found that the results of the correlational analysis showed the convergent validity of the questionnaires in a number of significant correlations among the overlapping subscales intended to measure the same theoretical construct in each of the four questionnaires.
Abstract: A review of the literature revealed four major self-report measures of organizational culture measuring organizational behavioral norms or values. This study set out to compare these different measures by correlational and factor analysis. The results of the correlational analysis showed the convergent validity of the questionnaires in a number of significant correlations among the overlapping subscales intended to measure the same theoretical construct in each of the four questionnaires. Finally, the factor analysis yielded six readily interpretable factors providing an eclectic framework of the organizational culture dimensions which is supported by the relevant literature. Results are discussed in terms of different frameworks and measures of organizational culture.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a case history of one entrepreneur who chose to be treated through psychoanalysis, and a brief overview of the role of work in psychoanalytic theory.
Abstract: In psychoanalytic theory, studies of work behavior have been relatively scarce. Most of the existing literature concerns itself with cases of work inhibition or compulsion. Occasionally, one finds a discussion of people in the creative professions. No attention has been paid, however, to a major contributor to economic development in society, the entrepreneur. This contrasts sharply with the amount of attention given to entrepreneurs by other disciplines. The object of this study is to better understand the dynamics of entrepreneurship, and in particular the work behavior of entrepreneurs. First, there is a brief overview of the role of work in psychoanalytic theory. Then a number of factors important to entrepreneurship are reviewed from the perspective of economic, sociological, anthropological, psychological, and organizational theory. A case history is presented of one entrepreneur who chose to be treated through psychoanalysis. The intensity of this type of treatment means that continuity in observat...
TL;DR: This paper analyzed whether demographic and situational factors identified in the U.S.-based literature had the same antecedent influence on the commitment of 1192 employees in 27 large Korean firms.
Abstract: This study analyzed whether demographic and situational factors identified in the U.S.-based literature had the same antecedent influence on the commitment of 1192 employees in 27 large Korean firms. Consistent with U.S. studies, the Korean employees' position in the hierarchy, tenure in their current position and age all were significantly related to organizational commitment. Total tenure and education were not related. As for the situational antecedents, except for management style, all the others were significantly related. Specifically, as organization size increased, commitment decreased; as the structure became more employee focused, commitment increased; and the more positive the organizational climate perceptions, the more the commitment. Although the exceptions need to be explained, this study provides beginning evidence that the theoretical constructs predicting the organizational commitment of employees may have cross-cultural validity.
TL;DR: Overall, this paper advances a classification of team attributes which is intended to facilitate team design and development, and which is potentially applicable to all teams in organizations.
Abstract: This paper addresses the contribution of teams to organizational performance. It distinguishes between three types of team attributes: technical expertise, self-management, and self-leadership, reviewing each attribute and assessing its relative contribution to three aspects of organizational performance: cost, value, and innovation. The paper also addresses the issue of the relatively neglected factor of the development costs of establishing and maintaining such groups and advocates a more rigorous approach to making a cost/benefit analysis before instituting teams. Finally, the paper advances a model of team development based on team attributes and performance objectives. Overall, therefore, this paper advances a classification of team attributes which is intended to facilitate team design and development, and which is potentially applicable to all teams in organizations.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore the idea that behaviorally complex managers are more effective than their less complex counterparts and find that behavioral complexity has a repertoire and differentiation component, where behavioral complexity refers to the portfolio of leadership functions managers can perform and behavioral differentiation to the ability of managers to vary the performance of their leadership functions depending on the situation.
Abstract: This paper explores the idea that behaviorally complex managers are more effective than their less complex counterparts. Behavioral complexity is assumed to have a repertoire and differentiation component. Behavioral repertoire refers to the portfolio of leadership functions managers can perform and behavioral differentiation to the ability of managers to vary the performance of their leadership functions depending on the situation. An empirical examination of the perceptions of the subordinates, peers, and superiors of the behavioral repertoire and differentiation of 282 middle managers from a large Fortune 50 manufacturing company and 252 managers from the public utility industry shows strong support for the notion that behavioral repertoire is positively associated with effectiveness and mixed support for the hypothesized positive relationship between behavioral differentiation and effectiveness.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined attitudinal commitment to determine its origins and whether it differs for men and women, using stepwise regression models to predict significant amounts of variation and identified th...
Abstract: Women's underrepresentation in higher organizational ranks is often attributed to low attitudinal commitment. This study examines attitudinal commitment to determine its origins and whether it differs for men and women. Previous research indicates that men and women have different levels of attitudinal commitment. Two explanations of attitudinal commitment differences are the gender model and the job model. The gender model contends that socialization shapes attitudinal commitment; in contrast, the job model suggests that workplace experiences determine attitudinal commitment. This study tests these models using 328 accountants as subjects; controlling for subjects' professional and educational background minimizes the confounding of extraneous factors found in previous research. Attitudinal commitment and workplace experiences were measured using subjects' evaluation of organizational involvement and job satisfaction. Stepwise regression models predicted significant amounts of variation and identified th...
TL;DR: The authors found that perceived discrimination against women was associated with lower feelings of power and prestige on the job, more work conflict, more hours spent on paid work activities, and a lessened willingness to make the same career choice.
Abstract: Building on research on collective relative deprivation, we used independent samples of psychologists and managers to assess the relationship of perceived discrimination to an individual's reactions to the job and to the organization. While workers perceived relatively little sex discrimination, women perceived more discrimination against women than did men, and both sexes perceived more discrimination against women than discrimination against men. For women, perceptions of discrimination against women were associated with lower feelings of power and prestige on the job, more work conflict, more hours spent on paid work activities, and a lessened willingness to make the same career choice. Among men, perceptions of discrimination were related to few outcome measures. Implications for organizations are discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the relationship between the amount and helpfulness of entry training and work outcomes for newcomers during organizational socialization and found that the amount of training received by newcomers was significantly related to job satisfaction, commitment, intention to quit, ability to cope, and several measures of job performance.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the amount and helpfulness of entry training and work outcomes for newcomers during organizational socialization. A sample of 152 newly-hired entry-level professionals completed a questionnaire after the first 6 months of socialization. Supervisor ratings of job performance were obtained 4 months later. The results indicated that the amount of training received by newcomers was significantly related to job satisfaction, commitment, intention to quit, ability to cope, and several measures of job performance. Newcomers' perceptions of the helpfulness of training was significantly related to job satisfaction, commitment, and intention to quit beyond that explained by training amount. However, none of the amount x helpftdness interactions were significant. In addition, newcomers' anxiety was found to mediate the relationship between training and ability to cope, and to partially mediate the training relationships with job satisfaction, commitme...
TL;DR: In this paper, a study among health-care workers was reported where a traditional stress management program (n = 66) was compared with an intervention promoting innovation at work as a form of stress management, where measures relating to both the process of participation in the respective interventions and outcome in terms of psychological well-being were taken.
Abstract: A study among health-care workers is reported where a traditional stress management program (n = 66) was compared with an intervention promoting innovation at work as a form of stress management (n = 52), and a control group (n = 84). Measures relating to both the process of participation in the respective interventions, and outcome in terms of psychological well-being were taken. The traditional program, emphasizing cognitive-behavioral and arousal reduction techniques, was associated with improvements in general psychological strain and job satisfaction. The intervention promoting innovative responses to stressors (e.g., changing work methods, modifying working relations with colleagues) was associated with improvements in work-related stress, and innovation. Statistical analysis suggested session process variables, in addition to the theoretical orientations of the respective interventions, were associated with outcome variance. Follow-up data, 1 year post-intervention, suggested short-term gains on ou...
TL;DR: This article found that the type of harm, the nature or kind of harm and the magnitude of the consequences, that is, the degree or extent of the harm affecting the victim, influence the moral reasoning criteria evoked to resolve the dilemmas.
Abstract: Business ethics research typically emphasizes the influence of personal and organizational forces upon ethical decision making. While accepting these forces as important, Collins (1989) and Jones (1991) suggest that the moral issue and its intensity may also influence individuals' resolution of an ethical dilemma. Utilizing a sample of 259 managers and a modified Moral Judgment Interview survey, this research reports that the type of harm, that is, the nature or kind of harm, and the magnitude of the consequences, that is, the degree or extent of the harm affecting the victim, influence the moral reasoning criteria evoked to resolve the dilemmas, as predicted by Collins and Jones. This finding has significant theoretical, empirical, and practical implications, as discussed in the paper.
TL;DR: The most popular method for measuring coping is the quantitative, methods-foci approach which was developed by Lazarus and his colleagues (Aldwin, Folkman, Schaefer, Coyne, & Lazarus, 1980).
Abstract: Coping is thought to be a major component in the relationship between the experience of stress and health. Currently, the most popular method for measuring coping is the quantitative, methods-foci approach which was developed by Lazarus and his colleagues (Aldwin, Folkman, Schaefer, Coyne, & Lazarus, 1980). Through a critical review of studies using this approach, and by drawing on qualitative data from a study of stress, coping and health among headteachers, this paper argues that these widely-used measures need refining. Qualitative data show that the efficacy of coping actions and the adequacy of external resources are two pivotal variables in the coping process, both of which are completely overlooked in quantitative coping checklists. More broadly, it is argued that alternative methodologies must be considered if we are to better understand the role of coping in the stress/health relationship.
TL;DR: This article found that women balance their work and family identity by trading-off one for the other, while men are able to simultaneously identify with work and their family roles, in a gender-stratified social system.
Abstract: As sources of meaning and identity, it has been suggested that research on work and family roles should focus on understanding the processes by which commitment to these roles is built and sustained (Bielby, 1992). Informed by this view, data obtained through structured questionnaires from dual-earner couples (N = 207) in Hong Kong were used to constructively replicate the work of Bielby and Bielby (1989). The thesis of this paper is that as individuals become involved in a role, they develop an identity attached to that role. Results of the regression analysis revealed support for the thesis but generally, in ways consistent with the prescribed roles of men and women in a gender-stratified social system. In addition, the results revealed that women balance their work and family identity by trading-off one for the other. In contrast, men are able to simultaneously identify with work and family roles. Limitations of the study, directions for future research, and implications of the findings for a balanced ...
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of age on subjective and objective performance ratings of sales representatives and their supervisors were examined in a field study covering the period from 1980 through 1986, and the results revealed that older employees performed better according to objective measures as well as on subjective performance ratings.
Abstract: The effects of subordinate and supervisor age on objective and subjective performance ratings were examined in a field study covering the period from 1980 through 1986. Archival data on sales representatives and their supervisors were collected from the southern United States region of a large corporation. Results revealed that older employees performed better according to objective measures as well as on subjective performance ratings. Findings also demonstrated that subordinates of older supervisors achieved higher levels of objective performance than did subordinates of younger supervisors. Recommendations are discussed for theory development and experimental studies to resolve some of the inconsistencies in the literature.
TL;DR: This paper examined satisfactions and work experiences of managerial and professional women as a function of the gender proportions of their organizations and found that most respondents worked in organizations with predominantly men in senior management although women were as likely as men to be present at other organizational levels.
Abstract: This exploratory study examined satisfactions and work experiences of managerial and professional women as a function of the gender proportions of their organizations. Gender proportion considered both the number of women (predominantly women, 50% women, predominantly men) and their location (at every level, in senior management). Data were collected from 792 managerial and professional women using questionnaires completed anonymously. Most respondents worked in organizations with predominantly men in senior management although women were as likely as men to be present at other organizational levels. Gender proportion was found to have only modest effects, when personal and organizational factors were controlled.
TL;DR: In this article, a model for understanding conflict-induced sense-making behaviors, grounded in the conflict and social cognition literatures, is proposed, and three components of sensemaking are proposed: emotional, cognitive, and behavioral.
Abstract: Theoretical and empirical models of interpersonal conflict focus primarily on engagement and avoidance behaviors between the conflict parties. Recent studies of workplace conflicts, however, suggest that encounters with third parties (e.g., co-workers, friends, family) are common responses to perceived incompatibility of interests. This paper introduces a model for understanding conflict-induced sensemaking behaviors, grounded in the conflict and social cognition literatures. Three components of sensemaking are proposed-emotional, cognitive, and behavioral. These elements are influenced by the focus of the party initiating sensemaking, as we illustrate through case-history scenarios.
TL;DR: The psychometric properties and utility of the Helpgiving practices scale are described in this paper, which includes 25 items which measure different kinds of helpgiving practices that have previously been found associated with positive recipient outcomes, including psychosocial functioning and selfefficacy appraisals.
Abstract: The psychometric properties and utility of the Helpgiving Practices Scale are described. The scale includes 25 items which measure different kinds of helpgiving practices that have previously been found associated with positive recipient outcomes, including psychosocial functioning and self-efficacy appraisals. Item analysis, internal consistency reliability, factor analysis, criterion-related validity, and known-groups validity found the scale to have excellent psychometric properties. The scale was especially useful for differentiating the helpgiving practices of professionals from different kinds of programs and agencies that varied on a continuum from professionally-centered to family-centered. Implications for research and practice are described.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an analysis of factors impeding this collaboration, drawing from the literature and from the author's experiences as a researcher at the Center for Organizational Learning at MIT.
Abstract: Recently, three noted scholars in the field of organizational development and action research, Edgar Schein, Peter Senge, and Chris Argyris, decided to collaborate on research at the newly formed Center for Organizational Learning at MIT. This article presents an analysis of factors impeding this collaboration, drawing from the literature and from the author's experiences as a researcher at the center. The article compares the three strategies for intervention research, and explores the theories of organizational effectiveness implied by each. Core challenges for each approach are identified, followed by theoretical and temperamental factors that may contribute to the persistence of separate approaches. Finally, options for collaborative research are reviewed, along with a recommendation for an integrative approach.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors developed a model for promoting intergroup collaboration called collaborative advocacy, which aims at achieving intergroup relationships that are both productive and empowering for their members; its cornerstone process goals include intergroup cooperation, group co-empowerment, and member empowerment.
Abstract: Two of the authors of this paper have developed a model for promoting intergroup collaboration called collaborative advocacy. This model aims at achieving intergroup relationships that are both productive and empowering for their members; its cornerstone process goals include intergroup cooperation, group co-empowerment, and member empowerment. In this paper, an outside researcher and the two developers of this model describe and evaluate its use in the advisory board of an education and advocacy project for persons with developmental disabilities, family members, and professionals. Results of archival and interview investigations indicated that the project has succeeded in fostering educational activities, spawning the development of new advocacy projects, obtaining financial support, and providing opportunities for participants to make public contributions to the understanding of disabilities. Most board members have been satisfied with their level of influence. Group differences remain regarding the ad...
TL;DR: In this paper, a causal model incorporating school climate, parent communication, and parent empowerment and their effects on parental involvement and satisfaction was used to evaluate the effect of organizational change on parents, students and teachers.
Abstract: Researchers have speculated on the nature of relations among parental satisfaction, school climate, and other variables. However, few empirical studies have examined relations among these variables in a causal framework, even when rhetoric of organizational change and its positive effects on parents, students, and teachers is abundant. The purpose of this study was to test a causal model incorporating school climate, school-parent communication, and parent empowerment and their effects on parental involvement and satisfaction. The present study employed a 71.2% sample of 42,818 parents (or 33,244 responding parents) from 122 elementary schools. Parent-school communication and school climate showed the strongest direct effects on parental satisfaction, followed by empowerment. The strongest indirect path to parental satisfaction was from school climate through informing parents. Other paths that showed weaker relations to parental satisfaction were: School climate-empowerment-informed; school climate-empow...