Showing papers on "Organic farming published in 2013"

Food production vs. biodiversity: comparing organic and conventional agriculture

Abstract: Summary 1. A substantial proportion of the global land surface is used for agricultural production. Agricultural land serves multiple societal purposes; it provides food, fuel and fibre and also acts as habitat for organisms and supports the services they provide. Biodiversity conservation and food production need to be balanced: production needs to be sustainable, while conservation cannot be totally at the expense of crop yield. 2. To identify the benefits (in terms of biodiversity conservation) and costs (in terms of reduction in yields) of agricultural management, we examined the relationship between crop yield and abundance and species density of important taxa in winter cereal fields on both organic and conventional farms in lowland England. 3. Of eight species groups examined, five (farmland plants, bumblebees, butterflies, solitary bees and epigeal arthropods) were negatively associated with crop yield, but the shape of this relationship varied between taxa. It was linear for the abundance of bumblebees and species density of butterflies, concave up for the abundance of epigeal arthropods and butterflies and concave down for species density of plants and bumblebees. 4. Grain production per unit area was 54% lower in organic compared with conventional fields. When controlling for yield, diversity of bumblebees, butterflies, hoverflies and epigeal arthropods did not differ between farming systems, indicating that observed differences in biodiversity between organic and conventional fields are explained by lower yields in organic fields and not by different management practices per se. Only percentage cover and species density of plants were increased by organic field management after controlling for yield. The abundance of solitary wild bees and hoverflies was increased in landscapes with high amount of organic land. 5. Synthesis and applications. Our results indicate that considerable gains in biodiversity require roughly proportionate reductions in yield in highly productive agricultural systems. They suggest that conservation efforts may be more cost effective in low-productivity agricultural systems or on non-agricultural land. In less productive agricultural landscapes, biodiversity benefit can be gained by concentrating organic farms into hotspots without a commensurate reduction in yield.

Role of Bio-Fertilizer in Organic Agriculture: A Review

Abstract: Bio-fertilizers are one of the best modern tools for agriculture. It is a gift of our modern agricultural science. Biofertilizers are applied in the agricultural field as a replacement to our conventional fertilizers. Conventional fertilizers contain compost; household wastes and green manure. Those are not as effective as chemical fertilizers. So, farmers often try to use chemical fertilizers in the field for crop development. But obviously the chemical fertilizers are not environment friendly. They are responsible for water, air and soil pollution and can spread cancer causing agents. Moreover, they may destroy the fertility of the soil in a long run. Scientists have developed Biofertilizers to prevent pollution and to make this world healthy for everybody in a natural way. Bio-fertilizer contains microorganisms which promote the adequate supply of nutrients to the host plants and ensure their proper development of growth and regulation in their physiology. Living microorganisms are used in the preparation of biofertilizers. Only those microorganisms are used which have specific functions to enhance plant growth and reproduction. There are different types of microorganisms which are used in the bio-fertilizers. Bio-fertilizer being essential components of Organic farming play vital role in maintaining long term soil fertility and sustainability.

A Review of Organic Farming for Sustainable Agriculture in Northern India

Abstract: In the post independence period, the most important challenge in India has been to produce enough food for the growing population. Hence, high-yielding varieties are being used with infusion of irrigation water, fertilizers, or pesticides. This combination of high-yielding production technology has helped the country develop a food surplus as well as contributing to concerns of soil health, environmental pollution, pesticide toxicity, and sustainability of agricultural production. Scientists and policy planners are, therefore, reassessing agricultural practices which relied more on biological inputs rather than heavy usage of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Organic farming can provide quality food without adversely affecting the soil’s health and the environment; however, a concern is whether large-scale organic farming will produce enough food for India’s large population. Certified organic products including all varieties of food products including basmati rice, pulses, honey, tea, spices, coffee, oilseeds, fruits, cereals, herbal medicines, and their value-added products are produced in India. Non edible organic products include cotton, garments, cosmetics, functional food products, body care products, and similar products. The production of these organic crops and products is reviewed with regard to sustainable agriculture in northern India.

Yield and Economic Performance of Organic and Conventional Cotton-Based Farming Systems – Results from a Field Trial in India

Abstract: The debate on the relative benefits of conventional and organic farming systems has in recent time gained significant interest. So far, global agricultural development has focused on increased productivity rather than on a holistic natural resource management for food security. Thus, developing more sustainable farming practices on a large scale is of utmost importance. However, information concerning the performance of farming systems under organic and conventional management in tropical and subtropical regions is scarce. This study presents agronomic and economic data from the conversion phase (2007–2010) of a farming systems comparison trial on a Vertisol soil in Madhya Pradesh, central India. A cotton-soybean-wheat crop rotation under biodynamic, organic and conventional (with and without Bt cotton) management was investigated. We observed a significant yield gap between organic and conventional farming systems in the 1st crop cycle (cycle 1: 2007–2008) for cotton (−29%) and wheat (−27%), whereas in the 2nd crop cycle (cycle 2: 2009–2010) cotton and wheat yields were similar in all farming systems due to lower yields in the conventional systems. In contrast, organic soybean (a nitrogen fixing leguminous plant) yields were marginally lower than conventional yields (−1% in cycle 1, −11% in cycle 2). Averaged across all crops, conventional farming systems achieved significantly higher gross margins in cycle 1 (+29%), whereas in cycle 2 gross margins in organic farming systems were significantly higher (+25%) due to lower variable production costs but similar yields. Soybean gross margin was significantly higher in the organic system (+11%) across the four harvest years compared to the conventional systems. Our results suggest that organic soybean production is a viable option for smallholder farmers under the prevailing semi-arid conditions in India. Future research needs to elucidate the long-term productivity and profitability, particularly of cotton and wheat, and the ecological impact of the different farming systems.

Organic grain cropping systems to enhance ecosystem services

Abstract: Organic grain cropping systems can enhance a number of ecosystem services compared with conventional tilled (CT) systems. Recent results from a limited number of long-term agricultural research (LTAR) studies suggest that organic grain cropping systems can also increase several ecosystem services relative to conventional no-till (NT) cropping systems: soil C sequestration and soil N fertility (N mineralization potential) can be greater while global warming potential (GWP) can be lower in organic systems that use animal manures and cover crops compared with conventional NT systems. However, soil erosion from organic systems and nitrous oxide (N2O, a greenhouse gas) emissions from manure-based organic systems appear to be greater than from conventional NT systems, though data are limited. Also, crop yields, on average, continue to be lower and labor requirements greater in organic than in both tilled and NT conventional systems. Ecosystem services provided by organic systems may be improved by expanding crop rotations to include greater crop phenological diversity, improving nutrient management, and reducing tillage intensity and frequency. More diverse crop rotations, especially those that include perennial forages, can reduce weed pressure, economic risk, soil erosion, N2O emissions, animal manure inputs, and soil P loading, while increasing grain yield and soil fertility. Side-dressing animal manures in organic systems may increase corn nitrogen use efficiency and also minimize animal manure inputs. Management practices that reduce tillage frequency and intensity in organic systems are being developed to reduce soil erosion and labor and energy needs. On-going research promises to further augment ecosystem services provided by organic grain cropping systems.

Weed harrowing in organically grown cereal crops avoids yield losses without reducing weed diversity

Abstract: This report shows that weed harrowing in organic cereal fields is an efficient alternative to herbicides since weed harrowing does not reduce yields compared to weed-free plots. Arable weeds provide resources and habitat to many organisms. However, weeds are the most important constraint to crop production. Indeed, the potential crop losses of the eight major crops due to weed–crop competition amount to about 30 %. New ways of food production are needed due to the current severe biodiversity decline, about 1,000 times higher than the natural rate of species loss, and the growing food demands. Herbicides are highly efficient at reducing crop losses due to weed–crop competition, but at the expense of declining biodiversity. Studies have shown a poor efficiency of weed harrows in terms of weed reduction in organic farming systems. Here, we evaluated the feasibility of weed harrows in organic fields to reduce weeds to a threshold that does not limit crop production, while maintaining a rich flora. The results were compared to results obtained using herbicides in conventionally managed fields. Eleven organic and conventional cereal field pairs in Catalonia, Spain, were evaluated for one season in 2006–2007. Three different weed control treatments were applied: weed-free plots; weed-controlled plots, using herbicide in conventional fields and weed harrowing in organic ones and non-weeded plots. Crop yield and the abundance, richness and composition of the weed flora, which was dominated by ryegrass and poppies, were evaluated. Our results show that weed harrowing prevents weeds from being a limiting factor of crop productivity in organic cereal fields, since weed-controlled plots did not reduce yields compared to weed-free plots. A similar trend was observed in herbicide-controlled plots. However, herbicides diminished weed species richness in approximately 47 % and changed the species composition whereas harrowing allowed the maintenance of high levels of weed diversity in the organic fields.

Organic farming gives no climate change benefit through soil carbon sequestration

Abstract: Agricultural management strongly affects soil organic carbon (C), as shown by numerous long-term experiments (1). Practices known to increase soil C include adding organic manures and including grassland in crop rotations. Their effect on C is related to the net primary productivity of the agroecosystem and the fraction of organic matter remaining in the field or returned as residues.

Reversion from organic to conventional agriculture: A review

Abstract: Over the past 10 years, the organic sector has expanded continuously in Europe due to policy support and a growing market demand for organic products. In line with this development, many farmers converted to organic farming each year. Nevertheless, the total number of organic farms has not increased constantly in Europe. In several countries, the absolute number of organic farms actually decreased in some years of the past decade. Some of the deregistered farmers gave up completely; others reverted to conventional agriculture. Against this background, this article aims (i) to give an overview of the extent of reversion to conventional agriculture in Europe based on statistics, (ii) to conceptualize the decision to revert in the form of a theoretical model, (iii) to compare farmers’ reasons to revert to conventional farming based on existing studies, and (iv) to identify further research needs. The importance of reversions to conventional agriculture is difficult to determine with the existing data, especially as in most cases it is not recorded as to what happened to the farms after deregistering from organic certification. The data nevertheless show that there are large fluctuations in the organic sector with many farmers entering and exiting each year. In order to reveal the farmers’ reasons for deregistering, various qualitative as well as quantitative surveys have been carried out already. For most farmers, the decision to revert is a result of different factors. Reasons for the reversion of their farms can be classified into economic motives, difficulties regarding certification and control, problems with organic production techniques as well as the farms’ macro environment. In most cases, however, economic reasons played a main role. Suggestions for organic legislation bodies, advisory services and policy makers are derived out of the findings. A deeper understanding of the influencing aspects regarding reversions and the necessary changes in the organic sector to avoid them should be an important objective of forthcoming research.

Mycorrhizal activity and diversity in a long-term organic Mediterranean agroecosystem

Abstract: In organic agriculture, soil fertility and productivity rely on biological processes carried out by soil microbes, which represent the key elements of agroecosystem functioning. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), fundamental microorganisms for soil fertility, plant nutrition and health, may play an important role in organic agriculture by compensating for the reduced use of fertilizers and pesticides. Though, AMF activity and diversity following conversion from conventional to organic farming are poorly investigated. Here we studied AMF abundance, diversity and activity in short- and long-term organically and conventionally managed Mediterranean arable agroecosystems. Our results show that both AMF population activity, as assessed by the mycorrhizal inoculum potential (MIP) assay, the percentage of colonized root length of the field crop (maize) and glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP) content were higher in organically managed fields and increased with time since transition to organic farming. Here, we showed an increase of GRSP content in arable organic systems and a strong correlation with soil MIP values. The analysis of AMF spores showed differences among communities of the three microagroecosystems in terms of species richness and composition as suggested by a multivariate analysis. All our data indicate that AMF respond positively to the transition to organic farming by a progressive enhancement of their activity that seems independent from the species richness of the AMF communities. Our study contributes to the understanding of the effects of agricultural managements on AMF, which represent a promising tool for the implementation of sustainable agriculture.

Cultivation, processing and nutritional aspects for pigs and poultry of European protein sources as alternatives for imported soybean products

Abstract: In this study, the conditions are described for successfully cultivation, processing and applying alternative protein sources in (organic) pig and poultry diets under European climatic conditions, thereby taking sustainability characteristics, and legislative aspects into account.

Production Risk and Technical Efficiency in Organic and Conventional Agriculture – The Case of Arable Farms in Germany

Abstract: This paper quantifies the importance of production risk and technical efficiency as two possible sources of production variability in German organic and conventional farming. Determinants of production risk and inefficiency are investigated based on a combination of Just and Pope’s stochastic production framework and a Stochastic Frontier Analysis. The empirical analysis is conducted using a balanced panel of farm records from 1999/2000 to 2006/2007 on 37 organic and conventional arable farms, respectively. Euclidian-Distance-Matching is used to identify for each organic farm a conventional counterpart with similar structural features. Results indicate that output variability in both production technologies is mainly caused by production risk. Land and labour are identified as risk-increasing inputs in both farm types whereas higher capital endowment, seed costs and soil quality have risk-reducing effects.

To what extent does organic farming rely on nutrient inflows from conventional farming

Abstract: Organic farming is increasingly recognized as a prototype for sustainable agriculture. Its guidelines ban the use of artificial fertilizers. However, organic farms may import nutrients from conventional farming through material exchanges. In this study, we aimed at estimating the magnitude of these flows through the quantification of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium inflows from conventional farming to organic farming. Material inflows and outflows were collected for two cropping years on 63 farms. The farms were located in three French agricultural districts distributed over a gradient of farming activity defined by both the stocking rate and the ratio of the farm area under arable crops. Our results showed that on average, inflows from conventional farming were 23%, 73% and 53% for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, respectively. These inflows were strongly determined by the farm production systems. However, for farms similar in terms of production systems, the inflows also depended on the local context, such as the proximity of organic livestock farms: the reliance of organic farming on conventional farming was lower in mixed than in specialized districts. These results highlight the necessity to quantify the contribution of nutrient inflows from conventional farming when assessing organic farming and development scenarios.

The implications of phasing out conventional nutrient supply in organic agriculture: Denmark as a case

Abstract: Soil fertility management in organic systems, regulated by the organic standards, should seek to build healthy, fertile soils and reduce reliance on external inputs. The use of nutrients from conventional sources, such as animal manures from conventional farms, is currently permitted, with restrictions, in the organic regulations. However, the reliance of organic agriculture on the conventional system is considered problematic. In light of this, the organic sector in Denmark has recently decided to gradually phase out, and ultimately ban, the use of conventional manures and straws in organic agriculture in Denmark. Core focal areas for phasing out conventional nutrients are as follows: (1) amendments to crop selection and rotations, (2) alternative nutrient sources (organic wastes) and (3) increased cooperation between organic livestock and arable farmers. Using Denmark as a case, this article discusses the background and implications of the strategy to phase out conventional manure and straw, and explores possible solutions to the challenge of ensuring a sustainable nutrient supply to organic systems. Alternative strategies to ensure nutrient supply will require a tapestry of small solutions. One element of this tapestry is to review the volume and type of nutrient sources available in alternative, non-farm organic waste streams and consider their suitability for use in organic systems.

Mechanical Termination of Diverse Cover Crop Mixtures for Improved Weed Suppression in Organic Cropping Systems

Abstract: Cover crops can provide many benefits in agroecosystems, including the opportunity for improved weed control. However, the weed suppressive potential of cover crops may depend on the species (or mixture of species) chosen, and the method of cover crop termination and residue management. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of cover crop mixture and mechanical termination method on weed biomass and density, and relative crop yield in an organic cropping system. A field experiment was conducted from 2009 to 2011 near Mead, NE, where spring-sown mixtures of two, four, six, and eight cover crop species were included in a sunflower–soybean–corn crop rotation. Cover crops were planted in late March, terminated in late May using a field disk or sweep plow undercutter, and main crops were planted within 1 wk of termination. Terminating cover crops with the undercutter consistently reduced early-season grass weed biomass, whereas termination with the field disk typically stimulated gra...

Interactions between conventional and organic farming for biocontrol services across the landscape

Abstract: While the area of organic crop production increases at a global scale, the potential interactions between pest management in organic and conventionally managed systems have so far received little attention. Here, we evaluate the landscape-level co-dependence of insecticide-based and natural enemy-based pest management using a simulation model for parasitoid–host interactions in landscapes consisting of conventionally and organically managed fields. In our simulations conventional management consists of broad-spectrum or selective insecticide application, while organic management involves no insecticides. Simulations indicate that insecticide use can easily result in lose–lose scenarios whereby both organically and conventionally managed fields suffer from increased pest loads as compared to a scenario where no insecticides are used, but that under some conditions insecticide use can be compatible with biocontrol. Simulations also suggest that the pathway to achieve the insecticide reduction without triggering additional pest pressure is not straightforward, because increasing the proportion of organically managed fields or reducing the spray frequency in conventional fields can potentially give rise to dramatic increases in pest load. The disruptive effect of insecticide use, however, can be mitigated by spatially clustering organic fields and using selective insecticides, although the effectiveness of this mitigation depends on the behavioral traits of the biocontrol agents. Poorly dispersing parasitoids and parasitoids with high attack rates required a lower amount of organically managed fields for effective pest suppression. Our findings show that the transition from a landscape dominated by conventionally managed crops to organic management has potential pitfalls; intermediate levels of organic management may lead to higher pest burdens than either low or high adoption of organic management.

Mechanism and capacities of reducing ecological cost through rice–duck cultivation

Abstract: Background Rice–duck cultivation is the essence of Chinese traditional agriculture. A scientific assessment of the mechanism and its capacity is of theoretical significance and practical value in improving modern agricultural technology. Results The duck's secretions, excreta and their treading, pecking and predation decrease the occurrence of plant diseases, pests and weeds, enrich species diversity and improve the field environment. The rice–duck intergrowth system effectively prevents rice planthoppers and rice leafhoppers. The control effects can be up to 98.47% and 100% respectively; it also has effects on the control of Chilo suppressalis, Tryporyza incertulas and the rice leafrollers. Notable control results are found on sheath blight, while the effects on other diseases are about 50%. Harm from weeds is placed under primary control; prevention of weeds is sequenced by broadleaf weeds > sedge weeds > Gramineae weeds. Contents of soil organic matter, N, P and K are improved by the system; nutrient utilization is accelerated, resulting in decreased fertilizer application. Greenhouse gas emissions are reduced by 1–2% and duck fodder is saved in this system. There is also an obvious economic benefit. Conclusion Compared to conventional rice cultivation, rice–duck cultivation shows great benefits to ecologic cost and economic income. © 2013 The Authors. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry

Apparent Red Clover Nitrogen Credit to Corn: Evaluating Cover Crop Introduction

Abstract: Published in Agron. J. 105:1658–1664 (2013) doi:10.2134/agronj2013.0089 Available freely online through the author-supported open access option. Copyright © 2013 by the American Society of Agronomy, 5585 Guilford Road, Madison, WI 53711. All rights reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. T value of using cover crops includes reduced soil erosion, gains in soil organic matter, capture of unused fertilizer N, decreased soil compaction, and suppression of diseases and weeds when compared with bare soil or winter fallow (Snapp et al., 2005; Tonitto et al., 2006; Cherr et al., 2006). Before industrial manufacturing of inorganic fertilizers, the most common reason for using a legume cover crop was to enhance soil fertility, especially N (Dinnes et al., 2002). Many studies have attributed the benefit of a legume cover crop before corn to an increase in soil N levels following legume incorporation (Hesterman et al., 1986; Blevins et al., 1990; Torbert et al., 1996; Vyn et al., 1999; Sanchez et al., 2001); however, other non-N rotational benefits have been identified as well (McVay et al., 1989; Raimbault and Vyn, 1991; Corak et al., 1991). In total, the direct contribution of N from legume N2 fixation coupled with factors such as improved soil physical, chemical, and biological properties may synergistically produce the overall “rotational effect” (Gaudin et al., 2013); however, legume cover crops are generally managed as a N source (Tonitto et al., 2006; Liebman et al., 2012). Red clover, when frost-seeded into winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), has been shown to fix and accumulate large amounts of N in the aboveground biomass and has been evaluated as a green manure prior to corn production (Hesterman et al., 1992; Tiffin and Hesterman, 1998; Schipanski and Drinkwater, 2011; Gaudin et al., 2013). Due to the low C/N ratio of red clover tissues, N turnover is generally faster than for nonleguminous cover crops (Varco et al., 1989; Wagger, 1989); however, environmental and management factors can markedly influence decomposition dynamics, and it is difficult to accurately predict the amount of N that will become available, or when it will become available, to a subsequent crop (Crews and Peoples, 2005; McSwiney et al., 2010; Ruffo and Bollero, 2003). Snapp et al. (2005) determined that uncertainty regarding N mineralization and availability was one of the chief barriers to adoption of legume cover crops among surveyed Michigan farmers. Determining the N credit value of a cover crop is critical for calculating the N fertilizer application rate that maximizes profit and protects the environment (Andraski and Bundy, 2002; Stute and Posner, 1995; Vyn et al., 1999). Knowledge is limited, however, concerning longer term, decadal interactions of producing cover crops within a given cropping system. Long-term field crop experiments greatly improve our understanding of historical management effects on soil properties, including slow processes such as soil organic matter accumulation (Sanchez et al., 2004; Robertson et al., 2008). During the first decade of a row crop experiment in southwest Michigan, the presence of cover crops in a corn–soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]–wheat rotation supported soil C increases of 10 to 40 g C m–2 annually (Robertson et al., 2000). Similarly, diversification with cover crops in a 14-yr organic corn–soybean–wheat rotation experiment in Pennsylvania enhanced soil C by 42 g C m–2 annually (Drinkwater et al., 1998). Although these studies demonstrate gains in soil C and improved soil fertility, the timing of nutrient release, particularly with regard to soil N supply, has been shown to be one of the primary yield-limiting factors for cash crop production in organic farming systems (Cavigelli et al., 2008). Soil fertility amendments (i.e., fertilizers, composted dairy manure, and green manures) are generally applied to enhance the growth and yield of the cash crop. Although rarely studied, it can be inferred that practices improving soil nutrient and organic matter status will, in turn, enhance cover crop performance. We hypothesized that agricultural systems that have ABSTRACT Corn (Zea mays L.) production systems can benefit from introducing a leguminous winter cover crop into the rotation, especially with regard to increased N availability (i.e., legume N credit); however, it is not known if the full agronomic benefit is realized in the first year of cover crop introduction or if the benefit is cumulative with time. The objective of this study was to determine the apparent red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) N credit to corn in a conventional system where red clover was introduced for the first time compared with three agricultural systems that had a 14-yr history of using cover crops. The apparent red clover N credit was calculated by the difference in unfertilized corn N accumulation between cover and no-cover split-split plots. These data suggest that corn growers can realize the full benefits of a red clover cover crop in the first year of introduction.

Biofertilizers: A Sustainable Eco-Friendly Agricultural Approach to Crop Improvement

Abstract: Fertilizers play an important role in enhancing crop productivity. However, chemical fertilizers are expensive, non-eco-friendly, cause eutrophication, reduce organic matter and microbiotic activity in soil and are hazardous to health. Therefore, the use of biofertilizers is desirable as they are natural, biodegradable, organic and more cost-effective than chemical fertilizers. Biofertilizers consist of plant remains, organic matter and some special class of micro-organisms. Biofertilizers help to increase quality of the soil by providing nutrients and natural environment in the rhizosphere. The micro-organisms present in biofertilizers are important because they produce nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus and other nutrients required for benefit of the plants. Most biofertilizers also secrete hormones like auxins, cytokinins, biotins and vitamins which are essential for plant growth. Biofertilizers give protection to plant by secreting antibiotics which are effective against many plant pathogens. Biofertilizers also protect plant from salinity and drought stress. Biofertilizers are inexpensive and safe inputs which provide a wide scope for research in the areas of organic farming and development of stress-free environment. Overall, the significant role of biofertilizers in plant growth productivity and protection against some stresses makes them a vital and powerful tool for organic and sustainable agriculture. This article describes various kinds of biofertilizers and their impact on different crops. The various biofertilizers which are described in this chapter are Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Rhizobium, Blue green algae, phosphorus and potassium solubilizing micro-organisms and Mycorrhizae. Vermicomposting and a possible mechanism of action of various biofertilizers have also been described.

Organic agriculture in the United States: A 30-year retrospective

Abstract: Since the early 1980s organic agriculture has undergone enormous growth and innovation in the US and throughout the world. Some observers have pointed to the US Department of Agriculture's 1980 Report and Recommendations on Organic Farming as having provided the catalyst for many of these developments. It is important, however, to understand how the evolving character of organic ideology during the 1960s and 1970s helped lay the foundation for moving organic agriculture onto the US governmental agenda in the early 1980s. We explore these and other contextual factors surrounding the USDA Report's release, including its methods, findings and recommendations, and both positive and negative reactions, as well as those factors that led to the Report's declining influence by the decade's end. The need for agricultural sustainability has played an important role in shaping, not only the path of organic agriculture in the US but also the overall politics of American agriculture. Legislative efforts to support organic agriculture have evolved along with this altered policy environment and are considered here within the broader context of the politics of sustainable agriculture. Next, we consider the organic industry's transition from a privately managed enterprise to the pivotal role now played by the federal government in the administration of the National Organic Program. Calls to move ‘beyond organic’ are also examined. Finally, we explore the impact of sustainable agriculture, agricultural research and farm structure upon the future of organic agriculture in the US. The politics within these three interrelated domains of public agricultural policy will likely bear heavily upon the future of organic farming and the organic industry as a whole.

Comparing attitudes and characteristics of organic, former organic and conventional farmers: Evidence from Ireland

Abstract: Despite an overall growth rate of the organic farming sector in the European Union, a considerable number of farmers cease organic production each year. Given the commitment of many European governments to increase the size of their organic farming sectors, reducing the rate of withdrawals from organic production may be an easier option than attracting new farmers into organic farming. In order to reduce the rate of withdrawals, knowledge about those farmers is required. However, to date, little is known about farmers who adopt and subsequently abandon organic farming. This study attempts to fill this gap in the literature by comparing and contrasting the farm and personal characteristics of organic, former organic and conventional farmers. To this end, primary data from 596 Irish cattle and sheep farmers are utilized. Overall, the findings reveal significant differences between the three groups. More specifically, organic farmers are found to be the most environmentally aware farmers, who also rate information gathering as more important than the remaining two groups. Organic farmers are younger, better educated and more likely to be women than conventional farmers. Former organic farmers stand out to be the least risk averse group and also express lower environmental awareness than organic farmers. Conventional farmers are found to be the most profit oriented and least environmentally aware group. In addition, this group farms more intensely stocked enterprises than the remaining groups. The paper concludes with a discussion of some policy recommendations aimed at increasing the size of the organic sector.