Showing papers on "Verbal learning published in 2012"

Phonological skills and their role in learning to read: A meta-analytic review.

Abstract: The authors report a systematic meta-analytic review of the relationships among 3 of the most widely studied measures of children's phonological skills (phonemic awareness, rime awareness, and verbal short-term memory) and children's word reading skills The review included both extreme group studies and correlational studies with unselected samples (235 studies were included, and 995 effect sizes were calculated) Results from extreme group comparisons indicated that children with dyslexia show a large deficit on phonemic awareness in relation to typically developing children of the same age (pooled effect size estimate: -137) and children matched on reading level (pooled effect size estimate: -057) There were significantly smaller group deficits on both rime awareness and verbal short-term memory (pooled effect size estimates: rime skills in relation to age-matched controls, -093, and reading-level controls, -037; verbal short-term memory skills in relation to age-matched controls, -071, and reading-level controls, -009) Analyses of studies of unselected samples showed that phonemic awareness was the strongest correlate of individual differences in word reading ability and that this effect remained reliable after controlling for variations in both verbal short-term memory and rime awareness These findings support the pivotal role of phonemic awareness as a predictor of individual differences in reading development We discuss whether such a relationship is a causal one and the implications of research in this area for current approaches to the teaching of reading and interventions for children with reading difficulties

Cognitive and clinical outcomes of homocysteine-lowering B-vitamin treatment in mild cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled trial.

Abstract: †Background: Homocysteine is a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease. In the first report on the VITACOG trial, we showed that homocysteine-lowering treatment with B vitamins slows the rate of brain atrophy in mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Here we report the effect of B vitamins on cognitive and clinical decline (secondary outcomes) in the same study. Methods:This was a double-blind, single-centre study, which included participants with MCI, aged ≥70y, randomly assigned to receive a daily dose of 0.8mg folic acid, 0.5mg vitamin B12 and 20mg vitamin B6 (133 participants) or placebo (133 participants) for 2y. Changes in cognitive or clinical function were analysed by generalized linear models or mixed-effects models. Results: The mean plasma total homocysteine was 30% lower in those treated with B vitamins relative to placebo. B vitamins stabilized executive function (CLOX) relative to placebo (P=0.015). There was significant benefit of B-vitamin treatment among participants with baseline homocysteine above the median (11.3mmol/L) in global cognition (Mini Mental State Examination, P<0.001), episodic memory (Hopkins Verbal Learning Test–delayed recall, P=0.001) and semantic memory (category fluency, P=0.037). Clinical benefit occurred in the B-vitamin group for those in the upper quartile of homocysteine at baseline in global clinical dementia rating score (P=0.02) and IQCODE score (P=0.01). Conclusion: In this small intervention trial, B vitamins appear to slow cognitive and clinical decline in peoplewithMCI,inparticularinthosewithelevatedhomocysteine.Furthertrialsareneededtoseeifthistreatment will slow or prevent conversion from MCI to dementia. Copyright # 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Supporting information may be found in the online version of this article.

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, duloxetine-referenced, fixed-dose study comparing the efficacy and safety of Lu AA21004 in elderly patients with major depressive disorder.

Abstract: The efficacy and tolerability of Lu AA21004 at 5 mg/day, a novel multimodal antidepressant, were assessed in elderly patients with recurrent major depressive disorder. Patients were randomly assigned (1:1:1) to Lu AA21004 5 mg/day, duloxetine 60 mg/day (reference) or to placebo in an 8-week double-blind study. The primary efficacy measure was the 24-item Hamilton Depression Scale (HAM-D(24)) total score (analysis of covariance, last observation carried forward). Patients (mean age 70.6 years) had a mean baseline HAM-D(24) score of 29.0. Lu AA21004 showed significantly (P = 0.0011) greater improvement on the primary efficacy endpoint compared with placebo at week 8 (3.3 points). Duloxetine also showed superiority to placebo at week 8, thereby validating the study. HAM-D(24) response (53.2 vs. 35.2%) and HAM-D(17) remission (29.2 vs. 19.3%) rates at endpoint were higher for Lu AA21004 than for placebo. Lu AA21004 showed superiority to placebo in cognition tests of speed of processing, verbal learning and memory. The withdrawal rate due to adverse events was 5.8% (Lu AA21004), 9.9% (duloxetine) and 2.8% (placebo). Whereas nausea was the only adverse event with a significantly higher incidence on treatment with Lu AA21004 (21.8%) compared with placebo (8.3%), the incidence of nausea, constipation, dry mouth, hyperhidrosis and somnolence was higher for duloxetine. In conclusion, Lu AA21004 was efficacious and well tolerated in the treatment of elderly patients with recurrent major depressive disorder.

Word learning emerges from the interaction of online referent selection and slow associative learning.

Abstract: Classic approaches to word learning emphasize referential ambiguity: In naming situations, a novel word could refer to many possible objects, properties, actions, and so forth. To solve this, researchers have posited constraints, and inference strategies, but assume that determining the referent of a novel word is isomorphic to learning. We present an alternative in which referent selection is an online process and independent of long-term learning. We illustrate this theoretical approach with a dynamic associative model in which referent selection emerges from real-time competition between referents and learning is associative (Hebbian). This model accounts for a range of findings including the differences in expressive and receptive vocabulary, cross-situational learning under high degrees of ambiguity, accelerating (vocabulary explosion) and decelerating (power law) learning, fast mapping by mutual exclusivity (and differences in bilinguals), improvements in familiar word recognition with development, and correlations between speed of processing and learning. Together it suggests that (a) association learning buttressed by dynamic competition can account for much of the literature; (b) familiar word recognition is subserved by the same processes that identify the referents of novel words (fast mapping); (c) online competition may allow the children to leverage information available in the task to augment performance despite slow learning; (d) in complex systems, associative learning is highly multifaceted; and (e) learning and referent selection, though logically distinct, can be subtly related. It suggests more sophisticated ways of describing the interaction between situation- and developmental-time processes and points to the need for considering such interactions as a primary determinant of development.

Drifting from slow to “D’oh!” Working memory capacity and mind wandering predict extreme reaction times and executive-control errors.

Abstract: A combined experimental, individual-differences, and thought-sampling study tested the predictions of executive attention (e.g., Engle & Kane, 2004) and coordinative binding (e.g., Oberauer, Sus, Wilhelm, & Sander, 2007) theories of working memory capacity (WMC). We assessed 288 subjects' WMC and their performance and mind-wandering rates during a sustained-attention task; subjects completed either a go/no-go version requiring executive control over habit or a vigilance version that did not. We further combined the data with those from McVay and Kane (2009) to (1) gauge the contributions of WMC and attentional lapses to the worst performance rule and the tail, or t parameter, of reaction time (RT) distributions; (2) assess which parameters from a quantitative evidence-accumulation RT model were predicted by WMC and mind-wandering reports; and (3) consider intrasubject RT patterns—particularly, speeding—as potential objective markers of mind wandering. We found that WMC predicted action and thought control in only some conditions, that attentional lapses (indicated by task-unrelated-thought reports and drift-rate variability in evidence accumulation) contributed to t, performance accuracy, and WMC's association with them and that mind-wandering experiences were not predicted by trial-to-trial RT changes, and so they cannot always be inferred from objective performance measures.

Implicit statistical learning is directly associated with the acquisition of syntax.

Abstract: This article reports on an individual differences study that investigated the role of implicit statistical learning in the acquisition of syntax in children. One hundred children ages 4 years 5 months through 6 years 11 months completed a test of implicit statistical learning, a test of explicit declarative learning, and standardized tests of verbal and nonverbal ability. They also completed a syntactic priming task, which provided a dynamic index of children's facility to detect and respond to changes in the input frequency of linguistic structure. The results showed that implicit statistical learning ability was directly associated with the long-term maintenance of the primed structure. The results constitute the first empirical demonstration of a direct association between implicit statistical learning and syntactic acquisition in children.

Long-term cognitive and cardiac outcomes after prenatal exposure to chemotherapy in children aged 18 months or older: an observational study

Abstract: Summary Background Chemotherapy for the treatment of maternal cancers during pregnancy has become more acceptable in the past decade; however, the effect of prenatal exposure to chemotherapy on cardiac and neurodevelopmental outcomes of the offspring is still uncertain. We aimed to record the general health, cardiac function, and neurodevelopmental outcomes of children who were prenatally exposed to chemotherapy. Methods We did an interim analysis of a multicentre observational cohort study assessing children who were prenatally exposed to maternal cancer staging and treatment, including chemotherapy. We assessed children at birth, at age 18 months, and at age 5–6, 8–9, 11–12, 14–15, or 18 years. We did clinical neurological examinations, tests of the general level of cognitive functioning (Bayley or intelligence quotient [IQ] test), electrocardiography and echocardiography, and administered a questionnaire on general health and development. From age 5 years, we also did audiometry, the Auditory Verbal Learning Test, and subtasks of the Children's Memory Scale, and the Test of Everyday Attention for Children, and we also completed the Child Behavior Checklist. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00330447. Findings 236 cycles of chemotherapy were administered in 68 pregnancies. We assessed 70 children, born at a median gestational age of 35·7 weeks (range 28·3–41·0; IQR 3·3; 47 women at Interpretation Fetal exposure to chemotherapy was not associated with increased CNS, cardiac or auditory morbidity, or with impairments to general health and growth compared with the general population. However, subtle changes in cardiac and neurocognitive measurements emphasise the need for longer follow-up. Prematurity was common and was associated with impaired cognitive development. Therefore, iatrogenic preterm delivery should be avoided when possible. Funding Research Foundation-Flanders; Research Fund-K U Leuven; Agency for Innovation by Science and Technology; Stichting tegen Kanker; Clinical Research Fund-University Hospitals Leuven; and Belgian Cancer Plan, Ministery of Health.

Changes in brain volume and cognition in a randomized trial of exercise and social interaction in a community-based sample of non-demented Chinese elders.

Abstract: Physical exercise has been shown to increase brain volume and improve cognition in randomized trials of non-demented elderly. Although greater social engagement was found to reduce dementia risk in observational studies, randomized trials of social interventions have not been reported. A representative sample of 120 elderly from Shanghai, China was randomized to four groups (Tai Chi, Walking, Social Interaction, No Intervention) for 40 weeks. Two MRIs were obtained, one before the intervention period, the other after. A neuropsychological battery was administered at baseline, 20 weeks, and 40 weeks. Comparison of changes in brain volumes in intervention groups with the No Intervention group were assessed by t-tests. Time-intervention group interactions for neuropsychological measures were evaluated with repeated-measures mixed models. Compared to the No Intervention group, significant increases in brain volume were seen in the Tai Chi and Social Intervention groups (p < 0.05). Improvements also were observed in several neuropsychological measures in the Tai Chi group, including the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale score (p = 0.004), the Trailmaking Test A (p = 0.002) and B (p = 0.0002), the Auditory Verbal Learning Test (p = 0.009), and verbal fluency for animals (p = 0.01). The Social Interaction group showed improvement on some, but fewer neuropsychological indices. No differences were observed between the Walking and No Intervention groups. The findings differ from previous clinical trials in showing increases in brain volume and improvements in cognition with a largely non-aerobic exercise (Tai Chi). In addition, intellectual stimulation through social interaction was associated with increases in brain volume as well as with some cognitive improvements.

A meta-analysis evaluating stereotactic radiosurgery, whole-brain radiotherapy, or both for patients presenting with a limited number of brain metastases.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: To perform a meta-analysis on newly diagnosed brain metastases patients treated with whole-brain radiotherapy (WBRT) and stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) boost versus WBRT alone, or in patients treated with SRS alone versus WBRT and SRS boost. METHODS: The meta-analysis primary outcomes were overall survival (OS), local control (LC), and distant brain control (DBC). Secondary outcomes were neurocognition, quality of life (QOL), and toxicity. Using published Kaplan-Meier curves, results were pooled using hazard ratios (HR). RESULTS: Two RCTs reported on WBRT and SRS boost versus WBRT alone. For multiple brain metastases (2-4 tumors) we conclude no difference in OS, and LC significantly favored WBRT plus SRS boost. Three RCTs reported on SRS alone versus WBRT plus SRS boost (1-4 tumors). There was no difference in OS despite both LC and DBC significantly favoring WBRT plus SRS boost. Although secondary endpoints could not be pooled for meta-analysis, those RCTs evaluating SRS alone conclude better neurocognition using the validated Hopkins Verbal Learning Test, no adverse risk in deteriorating Mini-Mental Status Exam scores or in maintaining performance status, and fewer late toxicities. We conclude insufficient data for QOL outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: For selected patients, we conclude no OS benefit for WBRT plus SRS boost compared with SRS alone. Although additional WBRT improves DBC and LC, SRS alone should be considered a routine treatment option due to favorable neurocognitive outcomes, less risk of late side effects, and does not adversely affect the patients performance status.

Psychometrics of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and its subscales: validation of the Taiwanese version of the MoCA and an item response theory analysis.

Abstract: Background: The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) is an instrument for screening mild cognitive impairment (MCI). This study examined the psychometric properties and the validity of the Taiwan version of the MoCA (MoCA-T) in an elderly outpatient population.Methods: Participants completed the MoCA-T, Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), and the Chinese Version Verbal Learning Test. The diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) was made based on the NINCDS-ADRDA criteria, and MCI was diagnosed through the criteria proposed by Petersen et al. (2001).Results: Data were collected from 207 participants (115 males/92 females, mean age: 77.3 ± 7.5 years). Ninety-eight participants were diagnosed with AD, 71 with MCI, and 38 were normal controls. The area under the receiver operator curves (AUC) for predicting AD was 0.98 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.97–1.00) for the MMSE, and 0.99 (95% CI = 0.98–1.00) for the MoCA-T. The AUC for predicting MCI was 0.81 (95% CI = 0.72–0.89) using the MMSE and 0.91 (95% CI = 0.86–1.00) using the MoCA-T. Using an optimal cut-off score of 23/24, the MoCA-T had a sensitivity of 92% and specificity of 78% for MCI. Item response theory analysis indicated that the level of information provided by each subtest of the MoCA-T was consistent. The frontal and language subscales provided higher discriminating power than the other subscales in the detection of MCI.Conclusion: Compared to the MMSE, the MoCA-T provides better psychometric properties in the detection of MCI. The utility of the MoCA-T is optimal in mild to moderate cognitive dysfunction.

Language input and acquisition in a Mayan village: how important is directed speech?

Abstract: Theories of language acquisition have highlighted the importance of adult speakers as active participants in children’s language learning. However, in many communities children are reported to be directly engaged by their caregivers only rarely (Lieven, 1994). This observation raises the possibility that these children learn language from observing, rather than participating in, communicative exchanges. In this paper, we quantify naturally occurring language input in one community where directed interaction with children has been reported to be rare (Yucatec Mayan). We compare this input to the input heard by children growing up in large families in the United States, and we consider how directed and overheard input relate to Mayan children’s later vocabulary. In Study 1, we demonstrate that 1-year-old Mayan children do indeed hear a smaller proportion of total input in directed speech than children from the US. In Study 2, we show that for Mayan (but not US) children, there are great increases in the proportion of directed input that children receive between 13 and 35 months. In Study 3, we explore the validity of using videotaped data in a Mayan village. In Study 4, we demonstrate that word types directed to Mayan children from adults at 24 months (but not word types overheard by children or word types directed from other children) predict later vocabulary. These findings suggest that adult talk directed to children is important for early word learning, even in communities where much of children’s early language input comes from overheard speech.

Modeling cross-situational word-referent learning: prior questions.

Abstract: Both adults and young children possess powerful statistical computation capabilities—they can infer the referent of a word from highly ambiguous contexts involving many words and many referents by aggregating cross-situational statistical information across contexts. This ability has been explained by models of hypothesis testing and by models of associative learning. This article describes a series of simulation studies and analyses designed to understand the different learning mechanisms posited by the 2 classes of models and their relation to each other. Variants of a hypothesis-testing model and a simple or dumb associative mechanism were examined under different specifications of information selection, computation, and decision. Critically, these 3 components of the models interact in complex ways. The models illustrate a fundamental tradeoff between amount of data input and powerful computations: With the selection of more information, dumb associative models can mimic the powerful learning that is accomplished by hypothesis-testing models with fewer data. However, because of the interactions among the component parts of the models, the associative model can mimic various hypothesis-testing models, producing the same learning patterns but through different internal components. The simulations argue for the importance of a compositional approach to human statistical learning: the experimental decomposition of the processes that contribute to statistical learning in human learners and models with the internal components that can be evaluated independently and together.

The evocative power of words: activation of concepts by verbal and nonverbal means.

Abstract: A major part of learning a language is learning to map spoken words onto objects in the environment. An open question is what are the consequences of this learning for cognition and perception? Here, we present a series of experiments that examine effects of verbal labels on the activation of conceptual information as measured through picture verification tasks. We find that verbal cues, such as the word "cat," lead to faster and more accurate verification of congruent objects and rejection of incongruent objects than do either nonverbal cues, such as the sound of a cat meowing, or words that do not directly refer to the object, such as the word "meowing." This label advantage does not arise from verbal labels being more familiar or easier to process than other cues, and it does extends to newly learned labels and sounds. Despite having equivalent facility in learning associations between novel objects and labels or sounds, conceptual information is activated more effectively through verbal means than through nonverbal means. Thus, rather than simply accessing nonverbal concepts, language activates aspects of a conceptual representation in a particularly effective way. We offer preliminary support that representations activated via verbal means are more categorical and show greater consistency between subjects. These results inform the understanding of how human cognition is shaped by language and hint at effects that different patterns of naming can have on conceptual structure.

Associations of cortical thickness and cognition in patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls

Abstract: Previous studies have found varying relationships between cognitive functioning and brain volumes in patients with schizophrenia. However, cortical thickness may more closely reflect cytoarchitectural characteristics than gray matter density or volume estimates. Here, we aimed to compare associations between regional variation in cortical thickness and executive functions, memory, as well as verbal and spatial processing in patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls (HCs). We obtained magnetic resonance imaging and neuropsychological data for 131 patients and 138 matched controls. Automated cortical pattern matching methods allowed testing for associations with cortical thickness estimated as the shortest distance between the gray/white matter border and the pial surface at thousands of points across the entire cortical surface. Two independent measures of working memory showed robust associations with cortical thickness in lateral prefrontal cortex in HCs, whereas patients exhibited associations between working memory and cortical thickness in the right middle and superior temporal lobe. This study provides additional evidence for a disrupted structure-function relationship in schizophrenia. In line with the prefrontal inefficiency hypothesis, schizophrenia patients may engage a larger compensatory network of brain regions other than frontal cortex to recall and manipulate verbal material in working memory.

Association Analysis of 94 Candidate Genes and Schizophrenia-Related Endophenotypes

Abstract: While it is clear that schizophrenia is highly heritable, the genetic basis of this heritability is complex. Human genetic, brain imaging, and model organism studies have met with only modest gains. A complementary research tactic is to evaluate the genetic substrates of quantitative endophenotypes with demonstrated deficits in schizophrenia patients. We used an Illumina custom 1,536-SNP array to interrogate 94 functionally relevant candidate genes for schizophrenia and evaluate association with both the qualitative diagnosis of schizophrenia and quantitative endophenotypes for schizophrenia. Subjects included 219 schizophrenia patients and normal comparison subjects of European ancestry and 76 schizophrenia patients and normal comparison subjects of African ancestry, all ascertained by the UCSD Schizophrenia Research Program. Six neurophysiological and neurocognitive endophenotype test paradigms were assessed: prepulse inhibition (PPI), P50 suppression, the antisaccade oculomotor task, the Letter-Number Span Test, the California Verbal Learning Test-II, and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-64 Card Version. These endophenotype test paradigms yielded six primary endophenotypes with prior evidence of heritability and demonstrated schizophrenia-related impairments, as well as eight secondary measures investigated as candidate endophenotypes. Schizophrenia patients showed significant deficits on ten of the endophenotypic measures, replicating prior studies and facilitating genetic analyses of these phenotypes. A total of 38 genes were found to be associated with at least one endophenotypic measure or schizophrenia with an empirical p-value<0.01. Many of these genes have been shown to interact on a molecular level, and eleven genes displayed evidence for pleiotropy, revealing associations with three or more endophenotypic measures. Among these genes were ERBB4 and NRG1, providing further support for a role of these genes in schizophrenia susceptibility. The observation of extensive pleiotropy for some genes and singular associations for others in our data may suggest both converging and independent genetic (and neural) pathways mediating schizophrenia risk and pathogenesis.

Early Recognition and Disease Prediction in the At-Risk Mental States for Psychosis Using Neurocognitive Pattern Classification

Abstract: Background: Neuropsychological deficits predate overtpsychosis and overlap with the impairments in the estab-lisheddisease.However,todate,nosingleneurocognitivemeasurehasshownsufficientpowerforaprognostictest.Thus, it remains to be determined whether multivariateneurocognitive pattern classification could facilitate thediagnostic identification of different at-risk mental states(ARMS) for psychosis and the individualized predictionof illness transition.Methods: First, classificationof 30healthy controls (HC)vs 48 ARMS individuals subgrouped into 20 ‘‘early,’’ 28‘‘late’’ARMSsubjectswasperformedbasedonacompre-hensive neuropsychological test battery. Second, diseasepredictionwasevaluatedbycategorizingtheneurocogni-tive baseline data of those ARMS individuals with tran-sition (n 5 15) vs non transition (n 5 20) vs HC after 4years of follow-up. Generalizability of classification wasestimated by repeated double cross-validation.Results: The 3-group cross-validated classification accu-racies in the first analysis were 94.2% (HC vs rest), 85.0%(early at-risk subjects vs rest), and, 91.4% (late at-risksubjects vs rest) and 90.8% (HC vs rest), 90.8% (convert-ers vs rest), and 89.0% (nonconverters vs rest) in the sec-ond analysis. Patterns distinguishing the early or lateARMS from HC primarily involved the verbal learning/memory domains, while executive functioning and verbalIQ deficits were particularly characteristic of the lateARMS. Disease transition was mainly predicted by exec-utive and verbal learning impairments.Conclusions: Different ARMS and their clinical out-comes may be reliably identified on an individual basisby evaluating neurocognitive test batteries using multi-variatepatternrecognition.Thesepatternsmayhavethepotential to substantially improve the early recognitionof psychosis.Key words: individualized psychosis prediction/multivariate analysis/neurocognitive test batteryIntroductionNeurocognitive deficits have been described as a corefeature of schizophrenic psychosis affecting cognitiveperformance particularly within the domains of process-ing speed, verbal learning, and executive functioning.

The influence of language proficiency on lexical semantic processing in native and late learners of english

Abstract: We investigated the influence of English proficiency on ERPs elicited by lexical semantic violations in English sentences, in both native English speakers and native Spanish speakers who learned English in adulthood. All participants were administered a standardized test of English proficiency, and data were analyzed using linear mixed effects (LME) modeling. Relative to native learners, late learners showed reduced amplitude and delayed onset of the N400 component associated with reading semantic violations. As well, after the N400 late learners showed reduced anterior negative scalp potentials and increased posterior potentials. In both native and late learners, N400 amplitudes to semantically appropriate words were larger for people with lower English proficiency. N400 amplitudes to semantic violations, however, were not influenced by proficiency. Although both N400 onset latency and the late ERP effects differed between L1 and L2 learners, neither correlated with proficiency. Different approaches to dealing with the high degree of correlation between proficiency and native/late learner group status are discussed in the context of LME modeling. The results thus indicate that proficiency can modulate ERP effects in both L1 and L2 learners, and for some measures (in this case, N400 amplitude), L1-L2 differences may be entirely accounted for by proficiency. On the other hand, not all effects of L2 learning can be attributed to proficiency. Rather, the differences in N400 onset and the post-N400 violation effects appear to reflect fundamental differences in L1-L2 processing.

Sex Differences in Cognition in Healthy Elderly Individuals

Abstract: Sex differences in patterns of cognitive test performance have been attributed to factors, such as sex hormones or sexual dimorphisms in brain structure, that change with normal aging. The current study examined sex differences in patterns of cognitive test performance in healthy elderly individuals. Cognitive test scores of 957 men and women (age 67–89), matched for overall level of cognitive test performance, age, education, and depression scale score, were compared. Men and women were indistinguishable on tests of auditory divided attention, category fluency, and executive functioning. In contrast, women performed better than men on tests of psychomotor speed and verbal learning and memory, whereas men outperformed women on tests of visuoconstruction and visual perception. Our finding that the pattern of sex differences in cognition observed in young adults is observed in old age has implications for future studies of both healthy elderly individuals and of those with cognitive disorders.

Brief Wakeful Resting Boosts New Memories Over the Long Term

Abstract: A brief wakeful rest after new verbal learning enhances memory for several minutes. In the research reported here, we explored the possibility of extending this rest-induced memory enhancement over much longer periods. Participants were presented with two stories; one story was followed by a 10-min period of wakeful resting, and the other was followed by a 10-min period during which participants played a spot-the-difference game. In Experiment 1, wakeful resting led to significant enhancement of memory after a 15- to 30-min period and also after 7 days. In Experiment 2, this striking enhancement of memory 7 days after learning was demonstrated even when no retrievals were imposed in the interim. The degree to which people can remember prose after 7 days is significantly affected by the cognitive activity that they engage in shortly after new learning takes place. We propose that wakeful resting after new learning allows new memory traces to be consolidated better and hence to be retained for much longer.

Residential proximity to nearest major roadway and cognitive function in community-dwelling seniors: results from the MOBILIZE Boston Study.

Abstract: Objectives: To evaluate the association between residential distance to nearest major roadway, as a marker of long-term exposure to traffic pollution, and cognitive function in older adults. Design: Prospective cohort study with median follow-up of 16.8 months. Setting: Community. Participants: Seven hundred sixty-five community-dwelling seniors. Measurements: The Mini-Mental State Examination, Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised (HVLT-R), Trail Making Test (TMT), category and letter fluency tests, and Clock-in-the-Box Test were administered during home visits on two occasions. The residential distance to the nearest major roadway was calculated, and generalized estimating equations were used to evaluate the association between performance on each test and residential distance to nearest major roadway, adjusting for participant demographics, education, socioeconomic status, and past medical history. Results: Shorter distance to major roadway was associated with statistically significantly poorer performance on the immediate and delayed recall components of the HVLT-R, TMT Part B, TMT delta, and letter and category fluency tests. Generally, participants residing less than 100 m from a major roadway performed worst. Performance improved monotonically with increasing distance. Conclusion: In this cohort of community-dwelling older adults, residential proximity to a major roadway was associated with poorer performance on cognitive tests of verbal learning and memory, psychomotor speed, language, and executive functioning. If causal, these results add to the growing evidence that living near major roadways is associated with adverse health outcomes.

Performance of Young Adult Cannabis Users on Neurocognitive Measures of Impulsive Behavior and their Relationship to Symptoms of Cannabis Use Disorders

Abstract: Recent studies suggest that abstinent cannabis users show deficits on neurocognitive laboratory tasks of impulsive behavior. But results are mixed, and less is known on the performance of non-treatment-seeking, young adult cannabis users. Importantly, relationships between performance on measures of impulsive behavior and symptoms of cannabis addiction remain relatively unexplored. We compared young adult current cannabis users (CU, n = 65) and nonusing controls (NU, n = 65) on several laboratory measures of impulsive behavior, as well as on a measure of episodic memory commonly impacted by cannabis use. The CU group performed more poorly than the NU group on the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised Total Immediate Recall and Delayed Recall. No significant differences were observed on the measures of impulsive behavior (i.e., Iowa Gambling Task, IGT; Go-Stop Task; Monetary Choice Questionnaire; Balloon Analogue Risk Task). We examined relationships between neurocognitive performance and symptoms of cannabis use disorder symptoms (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fourth Edition, DSM-IV CUD) among the CU group, which revealed that poorer IGT performance was associated with more symptoms of DSM-IV CUD. Our results show poorer memory performance among young adult cannabis users than among healthy controls, but no differences on measures of impulsive behavior. However, performance on a specific type of impulsive behavior (i.e., poorer decision making) was associated with more cannabis use disorder symptoms. These results provide preliminary evidence to suggest that decision-making deficits may be more strongly associated with problems experienced from cannabis use, rather than solely being a consequence of cannabis use, per se.

Short-term delayed recall of auditory verbal learning test is equivalent to long-term delayed recall for identifying amnestic mild cognitive impairment.

Abstract: Delayed recall of words in a verbal learning test is a sensitive measure for the diagnosis of amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) and early Alzheimer's disease (AD). The relative validity of different retention intervals of delayed recall has not been well characterized. Using the Auditory Verbal Learning Test-Huashan version, we compared the differentiating value of short-term delayed recall (AVL-SR, that is, a 3- to 5-minute delay time) and long-term delayed recall (AVL-LR, that is, a 20-minute delay time) in distinguishing patients with aMCI (n = 897) and mild AD (n = 530) from the healthy elderly (n = 1215). In patients with aMCI, the correlation between AVL-SR and AVL-LR was very high (r = 0.94), and the difference between the two indicators was less than 0.5 points. There was no difference between AVL-SR and AVL-LR in the frequency of zero scores. In the receiver operating characteristic curves analysis, although the area under the curve (AUC) of AVL-SR and AVL-LR for diagnosing aMCI was significantly different, the cut-off scores of the two indicators were identical. In the subgroup of ages 80 to 89, the AUC of the two indicators showed no significant difference. Therefore, we concluded that AVL-SR could substitute for AVL-LR in identifying aMCI, especially for the oldest patients.

C-reactive protein is related to memory and medial temporal brain volume in older adults

Abstract: Recent research suggests a central role for inflammatory mechanisms in cognitive decline that may occur prior to evidence of neurodegeneration. Limited information exists, however, regarding the relationship between low-grade inflammation and cognitive function in healthy older adults. This study examined the relation between inflammation, verbal memory consolidation, and medial temporal lobe volumes in a cohort of older community-dwelling subjects. Subjects included 141 functionally intact, community-dwelling older adults with detectable ( n = 76) and undetectable ( n = 65) levels of C-reactive protein. A verbal episodic memory measure was administered to all subjects, and measures of delayed recall and recognition memory were assessed. A semiautomated parcellation program was used to analyze structural MRI scans. On the episodic memory task, analysis of covariance revealed a significant CRP group by memory recall interaction, such that participants with detectable levels of CRP evidenced worse performance after a delay compared to those with undetectable levels of CRP. Individuals with detectable CRP also demonstrated lower performance on a measure of recognition memory. Imaging data demonstrated smaller left medial temporal lobe volumes in the detectable CRP group as compared with the undetectable CRP group. These findings underscore a potential role for inflammation in cognitive aging as a modifiable risk factor.

Assessing the effects of different multimedia materials on emotions and learning performance for visual and verbal style learners

Abstract: Multimedia materials are now increasingly used in curricula. However, individual preferences for multimedia materials based on visual and verbal cognitive styles may affect learners' emotions and performance. Therefore, in-depth studies that investigate how different multimedia materials affect learning performance and the emotions of learners with visual and verbal cognitive styles are needed. Additionally, many education scholars have argued that emotions directly affect learning performance. Therefore, a further study that confirms the relationships between learners' emotions and performance for learners with visual and verbal cognitive styles will provide useful knowledge in terms of designing an emotion-based adaptive multimedia learning system for supporting personalized learning. To investigate these issues, the study applies the Style of Processing (SOP) scale to identify verbalizers and visualizers. Moreover, the emotion assessment instrument emWave, which was developed by HeartMath, is applied to assess variations in emotional states for verbalizers and visualizers during learning processes. Three different multimedia materials, static text and image-based multimedia material, video-based multimedia material, and animated interactive multimedia material, were presented to verbalizers and visualizers to investigate how different multimedia materials affect individual learning performance and emotion, and to identify relationships between learning performance and emotion. Experimental results show that video-based multimedia material generates the best learning performance and most positive emotion for verbalizers. Moreover, dynamic multimedia materials containing video and animation are more appropriate for visualizers than static multimedia materials containing text and image. Finally, a partial correlation exists between negative emotion and learning performance; that is, negative emotion and pretest scores considered together and negative emotion alone can predict learning performance of visualizers who use video-based multimedia material for learning.

Verbal and Visual Memory Performance and Hippocampal Volumes, Measured by 3-Tesla Magnetic Resonance Imaging, in Patients with Cushing's Syndrome

Abstract: Context: Cushing's syndrome (CS) affects cognition and memory. Objective: Our objective was to evaluate memory and hippocampal volumes (HV) on 3-tesla magnetic resonance imaging (3T MRI) in CS patients and controls. Patients and Methods: Thirty-three CS patients (11 active, 22 cured) and 34 controls matched for age, sex, and education underwent Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test and Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure memory tests. Gray matter and HV were calculated on 3T MRI, using FreeSurfer image analyses software. Results: No differences in HV were observed between active and cured CS or controls. Memory performance was worse in CS patients than controls (P < 0.04 in active; P < 0.03 in cured CS) but did not differ among CS groups, which were therefore analyzed together; they performed worse for verbal (P = 0.02) and visual memory (P = 0.04) than controls. In 12 CS patients, memory was below normative cutoff values for verbal (n = 6, cured), visual memory (n = 10, six cured) or both (n = 4); these patients w...

Effects of growth hormone–releasing hormone on cognitive function in adults with mild cognitive impairment and healthy older adults: results of a controlled trial.

Abstract: Background Growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH), growth hormone, and insulinlike growth factor 1 have potent effects on brain function, their levels decrease with advancing age, and they likely play a role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease. Previously, we reported favorable cognitive effects of short-term GHRH administration in healthy older adults and provided preliminary evidence to suggest a similar benefit in adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Objective To examine the effects of GHRH on cognitive function in healthy older adults and in adults with MCI. Design Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Setting Clinical Research Center, University of Washington School of Medicine in Seattle. Participants A total of 152 adults (66 with MCI) ranging in age from 55 to 87 years (mean age, 68 years); 137 adults (76 healthy participants and 61 participants with MCI) successfully completed the study. Intervention Participants self-administered daily subcutaneous injections of tesamorelin (Theratechnologies Inc), a stabilized analog of human GHRH (1 mg/d), or placebo 30 minutes before bedtime for 20 weeks. At baseline, at weeks 10 and 20 of treatment, and after a 10-week washout (week 30), blood samples were collected, and parallel versions of a cognitive battery were administered. Before and after the 20-week intervention, participants completed an oral glucose tolerance test and a dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry scan to measure body composition. Main Outcome Measures Primary cognitive outcomes were analyzed using analysis of variance and included 3 composites reflecting executive function, verbal memory, and visual memory. Executive function was assessed with Stroop Color-Word Interference, Task Switching, the Self-Ordered Pointing Test, and Word Fluency, verbal memory was assessed with Story Recall and the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test, and visual memory was assessed with the Visual-Spatial Learning Test and Delayed Match-to-Sample. Results The intent-to-treat analysis indicated a favorable effect of GHRH on cognition (P = .03), which was comparable in adults with MCI and healthy older adults. The completer analysis showed a similar pattern, with a more robust GHRH effect (P = .002). Subsequent analyses indicated a positive GHRH effect on executive function (P = .005) and a trend showing a similar treatment-related benefit in verbal memory (P = .08). Treatment with GHRH increased insulinlike growth factor 1 levels by 117% (P Conclusions Twenty weeks of GHRH administration had favorable effects on cognition in both adults with MCI and healthy older adults. Longer-duration treatment trials are needed to further examine the therapeutic potential of GHRH administration on brain health during normal aging and “pathological aging.” Trial Registration clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT00257712

Caregiving and cognitive function in older women: evidence for the healthy caregiver hypothesis.

Abstract: Objectives: Recent findings of better health outcomes in older caregivers than noncaregivers suggest a healthy caregiver hypothesis (HCH) model may be more appropriate than the stress process model for evaluating the health effects of caregiving. In a cross-sectional study, we tested the HCH on two cognitive domains: verbal memory and processing speed. Method: Participants from the Caregiver Study of Osteoporotic Fractures who had a 2-year follow-up interview were categorized as continuous caregivers (n = 194), former caregivers (n = 148), or continuous noncaregivers (n = 574). The Hopkins Verbal Learning Test (HVLT; memory) and Digit Symbol Substitution Task (DSST; processing speed) were administered at the follow-up interview. Results: Continuous caregivers had better memory performance and processing speed than continuous noncaregivers: adjusted mean scores for HVLT were 18.38 versus 15.80 (p < .0001), and for DSST were 35.91 versus 34.38 (p = .09). Discussion: Results support the HCH model for cogniti...