Showing papers in "Nature Reviews Microbiology in 2010"
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TL;DR: The functions, properties and constituents of the EPS matrix that make biofilms the most successful forms of life on earth are described.
Abstract: The microorganisms in biofilms live in a self-produced matrix of hydrated extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) that form their immediate environment. EPS are mainly polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids and lipids; they provide the mechanical stability of biofilms, mediate their adhesion to surfaces and form a cohesive, three-dimensional polymer network that interconnects and transiently immobilizes biofilm cells. In addition, the biofilm matrix acts as an external digestive system by keeping extracellular enzymes close to the cells, enabling them to metabolize dissolved, colloidal and solid biopolymers. Here we describe the functions, properties and constituents of the EPS matrix that make biofilms the most successful forms of life on earth.
7,041 citations
TL;DR: A growing body of theoretical and experimental population studies indicates that the interactions within and between bacterial species can have a profound impact on the outcome of competition in nature.
Abstract: Most natural environments harbour a stunningly diverse collection of microbial species. In these communities, bacteria compete with their neighbours for space and resources. Laboratory experiments with pure and mixed cultures have revealed many active mechanisms by which bacteria can impair or kill other microorganisms. In addition, a growing body of theoretical and experimental population studies indicates that the interactions within and between bacterial species can have a profound impact on the outcome of competition in nature. The next challenge is to integrate the findings of these laboratory and theoretical studies and to evaluate the predictions that they generate in more natural settings.
2,031 citations
TL;DR: The findings suggest that the fitness costs of resistance will allow susceptible bacteria to outcompete resistant bacteria if the selective pressure from antibiotics is reduced, and that the rate of reversibility will be slow at the community level.
Abstract: Most antibiotic resistance mechanisms are associated with a fitness cost that is typically observed as a reduced bacterial growth rate. The magnitude of this cost is the main biological parameter that influences the rate of development of resistance, the stability of the resistance and the rate at which the resistance might decrease if antibiotic use were reduced. These findings suggest that the fitness costs of resistance will allow susceptible bacteria to outcompete resistant bacteria if the selective pressure from antibiotics is reduced. Unfortunately, the available data suggest that the rate of reversibility will be slow at the community level. Here, we review the factors that influence the fitness costs of antibiotic resistance, the ways by which bacteria can reduce these costs and the possibility of exploiting them.
1,929 citations
TL;DR: This Review highlights the most important antiviral mechanisms of bacteria as well as the counter-attacks used by phages to evade these systems.
Abstract: Phages are now acknowledged as the most abundant microorganisms on the planet and are also possibly the most diversified. This diversity is mostly driven by their dynamic adaptation when facing selective pressure such as phage resistance mechanisms, which are widespread in bacterial hosts. When infecting bacterial cells, phages face a range of antiviral mechanisms, and they have evolved multiple tactics to avoid, circumvent or subvert these mechanisms in order to thrive in most environments. In this Review, we highlight the most important antiviral mechanisms of bacteria as well as the counter-attacks used by phages to evade these systems.
1,894 citations
TL;DR: The presence and spread of antibiotic resistance in non-agricultural, non-clinical environments is explored and the need for more intensive investigation on this subject is demonstrated.
Abstract: Antibiotic-resistant pathogens are profoundly important to human health, but the environmental reservoirs of resistance determinants are poorly understood The origins of antibiotic resistance in the environment is relevant to human health because of the increasing importance of zoonotic diseases as well as the need for predicting emerging resistant pathogens This Review explores the presence and spread of antibiotic resistance in non-agricultural, non-clinical environments and demonstrates the need for more intensive investigation on this subject
1,850 citations
TL;DR: The multilayered effects of drug–target interactions, including the essential cellular processes that are inhibited by bactericidal antibiotics and the associated cellular response mechanisms that contribute to killing are discussed.
Abstract: Antibiotic drug-target interactions, and their respective direct effects, are generally well characterized. By contrast, the bacterial responses to antibiotic drug treatments that contribute to cell death are not as well understood and have proven to be complex as they involve many genetic and biochemical pathways. In this Review, we discuss the multilayered effects of drug-target interactions, including the essential cellular processes that are inhibited by bactericidal antibiotics and the associated cellular response mechanisms that contribute to killing. We also discuss new insights into these mechanisms that have been revealed through the study of biological networks, and describe how these insights, together with related developments in synthetic biology, could be exploited to create new antibacterial therapies.
1,796 citations
TL;DR: A global strategy aimed at increasing the capacity for surveillance and outbreak response, changing behaviours and reducing the disease burden using integrated vector management in conjunction with early and accurate diagnosis has been advocated.
Abstract: Dengue fever and dengue haemorrhagic fever are important arthropod-borne viral diseases. Each year, there are ∼50 million dengue infections and ∼500,000 individuals are hospitalized with dengue haemorrhagic fever, mainly in Southeast Asia, the Pacific and the Americas. Illness is produced by any of the four dengue virus serotypes. A global strategy aimed at increasing the capacity for surveillance and outbreak response, changing behaviours and reducing the disease burden using integrated vector management in conjunction with early and accurate diagnosis has been advocated. Antiviral drugs and vaccines that are currently under development could also make an important contribution to dengue control in the future.
1,732 citations
TL;DR: The interaction of the host immune system with the oral bacteria in healthy states and in diseased states is described and disease may result from 'community-based' attack on the host.
Abstract: Periodontitis, or gum disease, affects millions of people each year. Although it is associated with a defined microbial composition found on the surface of the tooth and tooth root, the contribution of bacteria to disease progression is poorly understood. Commensal bacteria probably induce a protective response that prevents the host from developing disease. However, several bacterial species found in plaque (the 'red-complex' bacteria: Porphyromonas gingivalis, Tannerella forsythia and Treponema denticola) use various mechanisms to interfere with host defence mechanisms. Furthermore, disease may result from 'community-based' attack on the host. Here, I describe the interaction of the host immune system with the oral bacteria in healthy states and in diseased states.
1,319 citations
TL;DR: This Review addresses the principles, challenges and opportunities of microbial electrosynthesis, an exciting new discipline at the nexus of microbiology and electrochemistry.
Abstract: Microbial electrocatalysis relies on microorganisms as catalysts for reactions occurring at electrodes. Microbial fuel cells and microbial electrolysis cells are well known in this context; both use microorganisms to oxidize organic or inorganic matter at an anode to generate electrical power or H(2), respectively. The discovery that electrical current can also drive microbial metabolism has recently lead to a plethora of other applications in bioremediation and in the production of fuels and chemicals. Notably, the microbial production of chemicals, called microbial electrosynthesis, provides a highly attractive, novel route for the generation of valuable products from electricity or even wastewater. This Review addresses the principles, challenges and opportunities of microbial electrosynthesis, an exciting new discipline at the nexus of microbiology and electrochemistry.
1,285 citations
Xiamen University1, University of Vienna2, University of Miami3, University of South Carolina4, Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research5, University of Tennessee6, University of Delaware7, Centre national de la recherche scientifique8, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science9, University of California, San Diego10
TL;DR: The microbial carbon pump is proposed as a conceptual framework to address the important, multifaceted biogeochemical problem of fixed carbon in the upper ocean.
Abstract: The biological pump is a process whereby CO(2) in the upper ocean is fixed by primary producers and transported to the deep ocean as sinking biogenic particles or as dissolved organic matter. The fate of most of this exported material is remineralization to CO(2), which accumulates in deep waters until it is eventually ventilated again at the sea surface. However, a proportion of the fixed carbon is not mineralized but is instead stored for millennia as recalcitrant dissolved organic matter. The processes and mechanisms involved in the generation of this large carbon reservoir are poorly understood. Here, we propose the microbial carbon pump as a conceptual framework to address this important, multifaceted biogeochemical problem.
1,194 citations
TL;DR: The population structure of commensal E. coli is described, the factors involved in the spread of different strains, how the bacteria can adapt to different niches and how a Commensal lifestyle can evolve into a pathogenic one are described.
Abstract: The primary habitat of Escherichia coli is the vertebrate gut, where it is the predominant aerobic organism, living in symbiosis with its host. Despite the occurrence of recombination events, the population structure is predominantly clonal, allowing the delineation of major phylogenetic groups. The genetic structure of commensal E. coli is shaped by multiple host and environmental factors, and the determinants involved in the virulence of the bacteria may in fact reflect adaptation to commensal habitats. A better characterization of the commensal niche is necessary to understand how a useful commensal can become a harmful pathogen. In this Review we describe the population structure of commensal E. coli, the factors involved in the spread of different strains, how the bacteria can adapt to different niches and how a commensal lifestyle can evolve into a pathogenic one.
TL;DR: The requirements that define swarming motility in diverse bacterial model systems are reviewed, including an increase in the number of flagella per cell, the secretion of a surfactant to reduce surface tension and allow spreading, and movement in multicellular groups rather than as individuals.
Abstract: How bacteria regulate, assemble and rotate flagella to swim in liquid media is reasonably well understood. Much less is known about how some bacteria use flagella to move over the tops of solid surfaces in a form of movement called swarming. The focus of bacteriology is changing from planktonic to surface environments, and so interest in swarming motility is on the rise. Here, I review the requirements that define swarming motility in diverse bacterial model systems, including an increase in the number of flagella per cell, the secretion of a surfactant to reduce surface tension and allow spreading, and movement in multicellular groups rather than as individuals.
TL;DR: This Review focuses on the recent advances in the understanding of the different pathogenic mechanisms that are used by various E. coli pathovars and how they cause disease in humans.
Abstract: Escherichia coli is a remarkable and diverse organism. This normally harmless commensal needs only to acquire a combination of mobile genetic elements to become a highly adapted pathogen capable of causing a range of diseases, from gastroenteritis to extraintestinal infections of the urinary tract, bloodstream and central nervous system. The worldwide burden of these diseases is staggering, with hundreds of millions of people affected annually. Eight E. coli pathovars have been well characterized, and each uses a large arsenal of virulence factors to subvert host cellular functions to potentiate its virulence. In this Review, we focus on the recent advances in our understanding of the different pathogenic mechanisms that are used by various E. coli pathovars and how they cause disease in humans.
TL;DR: The factors involved in the formation of these biofilms are described, including the initial adherence to the oral tissues and teeth, cooperation between bacterial species in the biofilm, signalling between the bacteria and its role in pathogenesis, and the transfer of DNA between bacteria.
Abstract: Growth of oral bacteria in situ requires adhesion to a surface because the constant flow of host secretions thwarts the ability of planktonic cells to grow before they are swallowed. Therefore, oral bacteria evolved to form biofilms on hard tooth surfaces and on soft epithelial tissues, which often contain multiple bacterial species. Because these biofilms are easy to study, they have become the paradigm of multispecies biofilms. In this Review we describe the factors involved in the formation of these biofilms, including the initial adherence to the oral tissues and teeth, cooperation between bacterial species in the biofilm, signalling between the bacteria and its role in pathogenesis, and the transfer of DNA between bacteria. In all these aspects distance between cells of different species is integral for oral biofilm growth.
TL;DR: This Review highlights the documented signalling interactions of the surface molecules of probiotic bacteria (such as long surface appendages, polysaccharides and lipoteichoic acids) with PRRs with respect to host pattern recognition receptors of the gastrointestinal mucosa.
Abstract: Interactions between host cell receptors and the surface molecules of bacteria are important determinants of the nature of the relationship between the two organisms. In this Review, Lebeer, Vanderleyden and De Keersmaecker examine the signalling interactions of probiotic bacterial cell surface molecules. How can probiotic bacteria transduce their health benefits to the host? Bacterial cell surface macromolecules are key factors in this beneficial microorganism–host crosstalk, as they can interact with host pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) of the gastrointestinal mucosa. In this Review, we highlight the documented signalling interactions of the surface molecules of probiotic bacteria (such as long surface appendages, polysaccharides and lipoteichoic acids) with PRRs. Research on host–probiotic interactions can benefit from well-documented host–microorganism studies that span the spectrum from pathogenicity to mutualism. Distinctions and parallels are therefore drawn with the interactions of similar molecules that are presented by gastrointestinal commensals and pathogens.
TL;DR: To improve the prediction of climate models, it is important to understand the mechanisms by which microorganisms regulate terrestrial greenhouse gas flux, which involves consideration of the complex interactions that occur between microorganisms and other biotic and abiotic factors.
Abstract: Microbial processes have a central role in the global fluxes of the key biogenic greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide) and are likely to respond rapidly to climate change. Whether changes in microbial processes lead to a net positive or negative feedback for greenhouse gas emissions is unclear. To improve the prediction of climate models, it is important to understand the mechanisms by which microorganisms regulate terrestrial greenhouse gas flux. This involves consideration of the complex interactions that occur between microorganisms and other biotic and abiotic factors. The potential to mitigate climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions through managing terrestrial microbial processes is a tantalizing prospect for the future.
TL;DR: NAP biology is considered from the standpoints of both gene regulation and nucleoid structure to show that nucleoid-associated proteins (NAPs) and transcription contribute in combination to the dynamic nature of nucleoids structure.
Abstract: Nucleoid-associated proteins (NAPs) bind to the bacterial chromosome and alter its dynamics, maintaining nucleoid structure. In this Review, Dillon and Dorman examine the range of proteins in the ever-growing NAP family and their contributions to the regulation of nucleoid structure and gene expression. Emerging models of the bacterial nucleoid show that nucleoid-associated proteins (NAPs) and transcription contribute in combination to the dynamic nature of nucleoid structure. NAPs and other DNA-binding proteins that display gene-silencing and anti-silencing activities are emerging as key antagonistic regulators of nucleoid structure. Furthermore, it is becoming clear that the boundary between NAPs and conventional transcriptional regulators is quite blurred and that NAPs facilitate the evolution of novel gene regulatory circuits. Here, NAP biology is considered from the standpoints of both gene regulation and nucleoid structure.
TL;DR: The key aspects of bacterial biopolymer production are summarized and how a better understanding of polymer biosynthesis and material properties can lead to increased use of bacterialBiopolymers as valuable renewable products are highlighted.
Abstract: Bacteria can synthesize a wide range of biopolymers that serve diverse biological functions and have material properties suitable for numerous industrial and medical applications. A better understanding of the fundamental processes involved in polymer biosynthesis and the regulation of these processes has created the foundation for metabolic- and protein-engineering approaches to improve economic-production efficiency and to produce tailor-made polymers with highly applicable material properties. Here, I summarize the key aspects of bacterial biopolymer production and highlight how a better understanding of polymer biosynthesis and material properties can lead to increased use of bacterial biopolymers as valuable renewable products.
TL;DR: This Review compares and contrasts the core functions for some of the well-studied ICEs and discusses them in the broader context of mobile-element and genome evolution.
Abstract: Integrative and conjugative elements (ICEs) are a diverse group of mobile genetic elements found in both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. These elements primarily reside in a host chromosome but retain the ability to excise and to transfer by conjugation. Although ICEs use a range of mechanisms to promote their core functions of integration, excision, transfer and regulation, there are common features that unify the group. This Review compares and contrasts the core functions for some of the well-studied ICEs and discusses them in the broader context of mobile-element and genome evolution.
TL;DR: The journey of symbionts from the initial contact to their final residence is described, and the molecular mechanisms that mediate symbiont attraction and accumulation, interpartner recognition and selection, as well as Symbiont confrontation with the host immune system are provided.
Abstract: The perpetuation of symbioses through host generations relies on symbiont transmission. Horizontally transmitted symbionts are taken up from the environment anew by each host generation, and vertically transmitted symbionts are most often transferred through the female germ line. Mixed modes also exist. In this Review we describe the journey of symbionts from the initial contact to their final residence. We provide an overview of the molecular mechanisms that mediate symbiont attraction and accumulation, interpartner recognition and selection, as well as symbiont confrontation with the host immune system. We also discuss how the two main transmission modes shape the evolution of the symbiotic partners.
TL;DR: This Review highlights some of the most recent advances in understanding of the biology of CHIKV and its interactions with the host.
Abstract: Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a re-emerging mosquito-borne alphavirus responsible for a recent, unexpectedly severe epidemic in countries of the Indian Ocean region. Although many alphaviruses have been well studied, little was known about the biology and pathogenesis of CHIKV at the time of the 2005 outbreak. Over the past 5 years there has been a multidisciplinary effort aimed at deciphering the clinical, physiopathological, immunological and virological features of CHIKV infection. This Review highlights some of the most recent advances in our understanding of the biology of CHIKV and its interactions with the host.
TL;DR: The diverse carbon fixation mechanisms that are found in archaea differ fundamentally from those of the well-known Calvin cycle, and their distribution mirrors the phylogenetic positions of the archaeal lineages and the needs of the ecological niches that they occupy.
Abstract: The acquisition of cellular carbon from inorganic carbon is a prerequisite for life and marked the transition from the inorganic to the organic world. Recent theories of the origins of life assume that chemo-evolution took place in a hot volcanic flow setting through a transition metal-catalysed, autocatalytic carbon fixation cycle. Many archaea live in volcanic habitats under such constraints, in high temperatures with only inorganic substances and often under anoxic conditions. In this Review, we describe the diverse carbon fixation mechanisms that are found in archaea. These reactions differ fundamentally from those of the well-known Calvin cycle, and their distribution mirrors the phylogenetic positions of the archaeal lineages and the needs of the ecological niches that they occupy.
TL;DR: A multifaceted containment programme has recently been launched, including early diagnosis and appropriate treatment, decreasing drug pressure, optimising vector control, targeting the mobile population, strengthening management and surveillance systems, and operational research.
Abstract: Artemisinin combination therapies are the first-line treatments for uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in most malaria-endemic countries. Recently, partial artemisinin-resistant P. falciparum malaria has emerged on the Cambodia-Thailand border. Exposure of the parasite population to artemisinin monotherapies in subtherapeutic doses for over 30 years, and the availability of substandard artemisinins, have probably been the main driving force in the selection of the resistant phenotype in the region. A multifaceted containment programme has recently been launched, including early diagnosis and appropriate treatment, decreasing drug pressure, optimising vector control, targeting the mobile population, strengthening management and surveillance systems, and operational research. Mathematical modelling can be a useful tool to evaluate possible strategies for containment.
TL;DR: Categorization of the available tools for network inference according to the strategies that they use to deal with the problem of underdetermination allows an insight into why a certain tool is more appropriate for the specific research question or data set at hand.
Abstract: Network inference, which is the reconstruction of biological networks from high-throughput data, can provide valuable information about the regulation of gene expression in cells. However, it is an underdetermined problem, as the number of interactions that can be inferred exceeds the number of independent measurements. Different state-of-the-art tools for network inference use specific assumptions and simplifications to deal with underdetermination, and these influence the inferences. The outcome of network inference therefore varies between tools and can be highly complementary. Here we categorize the available tools according to the strategies that they use to deal with the problem of underdetermination. Such categorization allows an insight into why a certain tool is more appropriate for the specific research question or data set at hand.
TL;DR: The ecological coherence of high bacterial taxa in the light of genome analyses is discussed and examples of niche differentiation between deeply diverging groups in terrestrial and aquatic systems are presented.
Abstract: The species is a fundamental unit of biological organization, but its relevance for Bacteria and Archaea is still hotly debated. Even more controversial is whether the deeper branches of the ribosomal RNA-derived phylogenetic tree, such as the phyla, have ecological importance. Here, we discuss the ecological coherence of high bacterial taxa in the light of genome analyses and present examples of niche differentiation between deeply diverging groups in terrestrial and aquatic systems. The ecological relevance of high bacterial taxa has implications for bacterial taxonomy, evolution and ecology.
TL;DR: It is now established that bacteria possess both N-linked and O-linked glycosylation pathways that display many commonalities with their eukaryotic and archaeal counterparts as well as some unexpected variations.
Abstract: Investigations into bacterial protein glycosylation continue to progress rapidly. It is now established that bacteria possess both N-linked and O-linked glycosylation pathways that display many commonalities with their eukaryotic and archaeal counterparts as well as some unexpected variations. In bacteria, protein glycosylation is not restricted to pathogens but also exists in commensal organisms such as certain Bacteroides species, and both the N-linked and O-linked glycosylation pathways can modify multiple proteins. Improving our understanding of the intricacies of bacterial protein glycosylation systems should lead to new opportunities to manipulate these pathways in order to engineer glycoproteins with potential value as novel vaccines.
World Health Organization1, University of London2, Public Health Agency of Canada3, Pasteur Institute4, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak5, University of Malaya6, University of Oxford7, National University of Singapore8, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention9, University of California, Berkeley10, University of Valle11, Mahidol University12
TL;DR: It has been proposed that the classification of d Dengue disease should be simplified as severe and non-severe dengue, which would make patient management and surveillance easier and permit early intervention to treat patients and prevent or control epidemics.
Abstract: Dengue is an arthropod-borne flavivirus that comprises four distinct serotypes (DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3 and DEN-4) that constitute an antigenic complex of the genus flavivirus, family Flaviviridae. Infection by one serotype induces life-long immunity against reinfection by the same serotype, but only transient and partial protection against infection with the other serotypes1,2. Dengue virus infections can result in a range of clinical manifestations from asymp tomatic infection to dengue fever (DF) and the severe disease dengue haemorrhagic fever/dengue shock syndrome (DHF/ DSS). Most dengue infections are asymptomatic or cause mild symptoms, which are characterized by undifferentiated fever with or without rash. Typical DF is characterized by high fever, severe headache, myalgia, arthralgia, retro-orbital pain and maculopapular rash. Some patients show petechiae, bruising or thrombocytopenia. The clinical presentation of acute dengue infection is non-specific but 5–10% of patients progress to severe DHF/DSS, which can result in death if it is not managed appropriately. Plasma extravasation is the main pathophysiological finding of DHF/ DSS, which differentiates it from DF. DHF/ DSS is characterized by high fever, bleeding, thrombocytopenia and haemoconcentration (an increase in the concentration of blood cells as a result of fluid loss). Approximately 3–4 days after the onset of fever, patients can present with petechiae, rash, epistaxis, and gingival and gastrointestinal bleeding. Pleural effusion and ascites are common. Some patients develop circulatory failure (DSS), presenting with a weak and fast pulse, narrowing of pulse pressure or hypotension, cold and moist skin and altered mental state. Although there are no specific antiviral treatments for dengue infection, patients usually recover when the need for fluid management is identified early and electrolytes are administered3. It has been proposed that the classification of dengue disease should be simplified as severe and non-severe dengue. This simplified classification would make patient management and surveillance easier4. There is a need for specific, inexpensive dengue diagnostic tests that can be used for clinical management, surveillance and outbreak investigations and would permit early intervention to treat patients and prevent or control epidemics. Progress is being made in primary prevention, with several candidate dengue vaccines in late phases of development as well as improved vector control measures. Additionally, new techniques for the early detection of severe disease such as the use of biomarkers have the potential to decrease morbidity and
TL;DR: This work reviews the understanding of these extreme Antarctic terrestrial microbial communities, with particular emphasis on the factors that are involved in their development, distribution and maintenance in these cold desert environments.
Abstract: For many years, the extreme environment of the Antarctic Dry Valleys was thought to play host to just a few viable microorganisms. However, as Cary and colleagues explain, recent work has led to the identification of a complex community structure that is able to survive in one of the coldest and driest places on Earth. The arid soils of the Antarctic Dry Valleys constitute some of the oldest, coldest, driest and most oligotrophic soils on Earth. Early studies suggested that the Dry Valley soils contained, at best, very low levels of viable microbiota. However, recent applications of molecular methods have revealed a dramatically contrasting picture — a very wide diversity of microbial taxa, many of which are uncultured and taxonomically unique, and a community that seems to be structured solely by abiotic processes. Here we review our understanding of these extreme Antarctic terrestrial microbial communities, with particular emphasis on the factors that are involved in their development, distribution and maintenance in these cold desert environments.
TL;DR: The current design of bacterial bioreporters and their use in a range of assays to measure the presence of harmful chemicals in water, air, soil, food or biological specimens are described.
Abstract: Bacteria have long been the targets for genetic manipulation, but more recently they have been synthetically designed to carry out specific tasks. Among the simplest of these tasks is chemical compound and toxicity detection coupled to the production of a quantifiable reporter signal. In this Review, we describe the current design of bacterial bioreporters and their use in a range of assays to measure the presence of harmful chemicals in water, air, soil, food or biological specimens. New trends for integrating synthetic biology and microengineering into the design of bacterial bioreporter platforms are also highlighted.
TL;DR: The clinical and molecular characteristics of bacterial–fungal interactions that are relevant to human disease are described.
Abstract: The human body plays host to interactions between a diverse range of microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi. In this Review, Mylonakis and colleagues describe the characteristics of medically important bacterial–fungal interactions and highlight how imbalances in these interactions can contribute to human disease. Whether it is in the setting of disease or in a healthy state, the human body contains a diverse range of microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi. The interactions between these taxonomically diverse microorganisms are highly dynamic and dependent on a multitude of microorganism and host factors. Human disease can develop from an imbalance between commensal bacteria and fungi or from invasion of particular host niches by opportunistic bacterial and fungal pathogens. This Review describes the clinical and molecular characteristics of bacterial–fungal interactions that are relevant to human disease.