Showing papers in "Oryx in 2013"

Biodiversity offsets in theory and practice

Abstract: Biodiversity offsets are an increasingly popular yet controversial tool in conservation. Their popularity lies in their potential to meet the objectives of biodiversity conservation and of economic development in tandem; the controversy lies in the need to accept ecological losses in return for uncertain gains. The offsetting approach is being widely adopted, even though its methodologies and the overriding conceptual framework are still under development. This review of biodiversity offsetting evaluates implementation to date and synthesizes outstanding theoretical and practical problems. We begin by outlining the criteria that make biodiversity offsets unique and then explore the suite of conceptual challenges arising from these criteria and indicate potential design solutions. We find that biodiversity offset schemes have been inconsistent in meeting conservation objectives because of the challenge of ensuring full compliance and effective monitoring and because of conceptual flaws in the approach itself. Evidence to support this conclusion comes primarily from developed countries, although offsets are increasingly being implemented in the developing world. We are at a critical stage: biodiversity offsets risk becoming responses to immediate development and conservation needs without an overriding conceptual framework to provide guidance and evaluation criteria. We clarify the meaning of the term biodiversity offset and propose a framework that integrates the consideration of theoretical and practical challenges in the offset process. We also propose a research agenda for specific topics around metrics, baselines and uncertainty.

Conservation, evidence and policy

Abstract: A growing literature argues for evidence-based conservation. This concept reflects a wider approach to policy-making and follows thinking in medicine, in which rigorous, objective analysis of evidence has contributed to widespread improvements in medical outcomes. Clearly, conservation decisions should be informed by the best information available. However, we identify issues relating to the type and sources of evidence commonly used and the way evidence-based conservation studies frame policy debate. In this paper we discuss two issues; firstly, we ask ‘what counts as evidence?’ (what is meant by evidence, and what kind of evidence is given credibility). We conclude that evidence-based conservation should adopt a broad definition of evidence to give meaningful space for qualitative data, and local and indigenous knowledge. Secondly, we ask ‘how does evidence count?’ (the relationship between evidence and the policy-making process). We conclude that there should be greater recognition that policy-making is a complex and messy process, and that the role of evidence in policy making can never be neutral. In the light of these issues we suggest some changes to build on developing practice under the title evidence-informed conservation. The change in terminology is subtle, yet it has profound implications in that it calls for a re-positioning and re-understanding of conservation science as one source of information among many for decision-makers.

Global economic value of shark ecotourism: implications for conservation

Abstract: Amid declining shark populations because of overfishing, a burgeoning shark watching industry, already well established in some locations, generates benefits from shark protection. We compile reported economic benefits at shark watching locations and use a meta-analytical approach to estimate benefits at sites without available data. Results suggest that, globally, c. 590,000 shark watchers expend > USD 314 million per year, directly supporting 10,000 jobs. By comparison, the landed value of global shark fisheries is currently c. USD 630 million and has been in decline for most of the past decade. Based on current observed trends, numbers of shark watchers could more than double within the next 20 years, generating > USD 780 million in tourist expenditures around the world. This supports optimistic projections at new sites, including those in an increasing number of shark sanctuaries established primarily for shark conservation and enacted in recognition of the ecological and economic importance of living sharks.

Trends and biases in the listing and recovery planning for threatened species: An Australian case study

Abstract: Many countries rely on formal legislation to protect and plan for the recovery of threatened species. Even though the listing procedures in threatened species legislation are designed to be consistent for all species there is usually a bias in implementing the laws towards charismatic fauna and flora, which leads to uneven allocation of conservation efforts. However, the extent of bias in national threatened species lists is often unknown. Australia is a good example: the list of threatened species under the Environmental Protection and Biological Conservation Act has not been reviewed since 2000, when it was first introduced. We assessed how well this Act represents threatened species across taxonomic groups and threat status, and whether biases exist in the types of species with recovery plans. We found that birds, amphibians and mammals have high levels of threatened species (12-24%) but < 6% of all reptiles and plants and < 0.01% of invertebrates and fish are considered threatened. Similar taxonomic biases are present in the types of species with recovery plans. Although there have been recent improvements in the representation of threatened species with recovery plans across taxonomic groups, there are still major gaps between the predicted and listed numbers of threatened species. Because of biases in the listing and recovery planning processes many threatened species may receive little attention regardless of their potential for recovery: a lost opportunity to achieve the greatest conservation impact possible. The Environmental Protection and Biological Conservation Act in Australia needs reform to rectify these biases.

Benefits of wildlife-based land uses on private lands in Namibia and limitations affecting their development

Abstract: TRAFFIC East/Southern Africa and Tom Milliken for instigating this project and the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and African Wildlife Conservation Fund.

Beyond ritual and economics: Maasai lion hunting and conservation politics

Abstract: Populations of the African lion Panthera leo are declining dramatically, with the species’ survival in some areas closely linked to levels of tolerance by rural communities. In Tanzania and Kenya several of the remaining lion populations outside protected areas reside adjacent to rural communities, where they are hunted. As many of these communities are Maasai, research and conservation efforts have focused on understanding and curbing Maasai lion hunting practices. Much of this work has been informed by a dichotomous explanatory model of Maasai lion hunting as either a ‘cultural’ ritual or a ‘retaliatory’ behaviour against predation on livestock. We present qualitative data from interviews (n = 246) in both countries to illustrate that lion hunting by Maasai is related to overlapping motivations that are simultaneously social, emotional and political (in response to conservation initiatives). Additional case study material from Tanzania highlights how politics associated with conservation activities and age-set dynamics affect lion hunting in complex and overlapping ways. Our findings contribute an ethnographic perspective on Maasai lion hunting, people–predator relations, and how these relations are linked to conservation politics.

Human activity negatively affects stone tool-using Burmese long-tailed macaques Macaca fascicularis aurea in Laem Son National Park, Thailand.

Abstract: Animal traditions can affect survival by improving how individuals use their environment. They are inherited through social learning and are restricted to small subpopulations. As a result, traditions are rare and their preservation needs to be considered in biodiversity conservation. We studied Burmese long-tailed macaques Macaca fascicularis aurea living on Piak Nam Yai Island in Laem Son National Park, Thailand, which maintain a rare stone tool-using tradition for processing hard-shelled invertebrate prey along the island's shores. We found the population had 192 individuals in nine groups and most individuals used stone tools. This population is under pressure from the local human community through the development of farms and release of domestic dogs Canis familiaris onto the island. The level of anthropogenic impact varied in each macaque groups' range and juvenile–infant composition varied with impact. The proportion of young was smaller in groups overlapping farms and was negatively correlated with the amount of dog activity in their range. We also found that coastal use by macaques was negatively related to living near plantations and that the dogs displaced macaques from the shores in 93% of their encounters. We conclude that human impact is negatively affecting Piak Nam Yai's macaques and are concerned this could disrupt the persistence of their stone-use tradition. we discuss the impact and the potential consequences, and we recommend better protection of coastal areas within Laem Son National Park.

Genetics and the last stand of the Sumatran rhinoceros Dicerorhinus sumatrensis

Abstract: The Sumatran rhinoceros Dicerorhinus sumatrensis is on the brink of extinction. Although habitat loss and poaching were the reasons of the decline, today's reproductive isolation is the main threat to the survival of the species. Genetic studies have played an important role in identifying conservation priorities, including for rhinoceroses. However, for a species such as the Sumatran rhinoceros, where time is of the essence in preventing extinction, to what extent should genetic and geographical distances be taken into account in deciding the most urgently needed conservation interventions? We propose that the populations of Sumatra and Borneo be considered as a single management unit.

Trophy hunting and lion conservation: a question of governance?

Abstract: Lion Panthera leo populations and distributions in Africa have contracted considerably in the past 30 years. Recent policy debates focus on restricting trophy hunting as a measure to address concerns about excessive offtakes of lions. We review the impact of trophy hunting in relation to lion conservation goals, using comparative case studies from Southern and East Africa, which together contain most of Africa's remaining lion populations. The comparison demonstrates that the impact of trophy hunting on lion populations is variable and shaped by the way trophy hunting is managed and wildlife is governed in different range states. In Tanzania, the most important lion range state, hunting produces significant revenues but weaknesses in how hunting is managed and revenues are distributed undermine the potential of hunting and encourage overharvesting. In Southern Africa linkages are stronger between revenue generated by trophy hunting and lion conservation outcomes on private and communal lands. Trophy hunting is most beneficial to lion conservation where revenues and user rights over wildlife are devolved, ensuring benefits from lion hunting compensate for their costs to local people, and where hunting is managed through long-term and competitively allocated concession systems. Policy interventions should focus on supporting trophy hunting as a conservation tool where it is effective and well-managed, and work to promote reform of hunting and wildlife governance elsewhere.

Forest cover outside protected areas plays an important role in the conservation of the Vulnerable guiña Leopardus guigna

Abstract: Habitat loss and fragmentation are affecting populations of forest dwelling mammalian carnivores worldwide. In southern Chile, a biodiversity hotspot, anthropogenic activities have resulted in high loss of native forest cover. The guina, or kodkod cat, Leopardus guigna is a small forest-dwelling felid with a narrow range in the temperate forest of southern Chile. The few existing studies of the species have suggested that it is almost exclusively restricted to large tracts of native forest. This paper reports a study in the temperate forest within a fragmented Andean piedmont landscape which demonstrates that smaller forest fragments in the farmland matrix are playing a key role in the persistence of the guina. We estimated occupancy in both continuous native forest and remnant forest fragments and, with single-species/single-season models, evaluated the extent to which forest cover, habitat type and proximity to protected areas have a modulating effect on occupancy. A continuous survey during 2008–2009, in three seasons of 90–100 days each, accumulated 6,200 camera trap days and returned 47 photographs of guina. Total detection in fragments was higher than in continuous forests, with detection confirmed in almost 70% of studied fragments. We found that probability of a site being occupied significantly increased with forest cover (adult/secondary forest, scrubland) and probability was low (< 0.2) in sites with < 50% of surrounding forest cover. Our study highlights the importance of remnant forest fragments in the mosaic of extensive agriculture for the spatial dynamics of a guina population and hence for the future conservation of the species.

Invasive mikania in Chitwan National Park, Nepal the threat to the greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis and factors driving the invasion

Abstract: As part of a census of the Indian rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis a survey was conducted to measure the extent of invasion by the neotropical plant mikania Mikania micrantha across major habitats of Chitwan National Park important for the conservation of the rhinoceros. Previous work has demonstrated that this fire-adapted plant can smother and kill native flora such as grasses and sapling trees, several of which are important fodder plants of the rhinoceros. Here, additional studies were conducted on the risks of anthropogenic factors (natural resource collection and grassland burning) contributing to the spread and growth of the plant. Mikania is currently found across 44% of habitats sampled and almost 15% of these have a high infestation (> 50% coverage). Highest densities were recorded from riverine forest, tall grass and wetland habitats and this is where the highest numbers of rhinoceroses were recorded in the habitats surveyed during the census. Local community dependence on natural resources in the core area of the Park is high. The range and volume of resources (e.g. fodder) collected and the distances travelled all pose a high risk of the spread of mikania. Of greater significance is the annual burning of the grasslands in the Park by local communities, estimated at 25–50% of the total area. It is imperative, therefore, that core elements of a management plan for mikania incorporate actions to control burning, reduce spread and raise awareness about best practice for local resource management by local communities.

Past, present and future conservation of the greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis in Nepal

Abstract: Until the early 1980s the only surviving population of the greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis in Nepal was in Chitwan National Park. Between 1986 and 2003 87 rhinoceroses from Chitwan were translocated into Bardia National Park and Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve in the western terai region to establish founder populations and reduce the threat of local extinction from natural catastrophic events, disease and/or poaching. The founder populations increased in number through births but a rise in poaching during the period of civil strife in Nepal during 1996–2006 resulted in a dramatic decline in the populations, including in Chitwan. In 2001 the Terai Arc Landscape programme was initiated to connect 11 protected areas in Nepal and north-west India and facilitate dispersal of megafauna and manage them as metapopulations. Corridors that were restored under the programme and that connect Bardia and Suklaphanta with protected areas in India are now used by the greater one-horned rhinoceros. The successes and failures of the last 2 decades indicate that new paradigms for protecting rhinoceroses within and outside protected areas are needed, especially with reference to managing this species at a landscape scale.

Wildlife predation on livestock and poultry: implications for predator conservation in the rainforest of south-east Mexico

Abstract: We assessed wildlife predation on livestock and poultry and the implications for predator conservation in the most important rainforest areas of south-east Mexico. We estimated the economic impact of predation and identified variables correlated to predation frequency in four communities adjacent to Calakmul and Montes Azules Biosphere Reserves. We did participant observation and interviews with 161 residents during January–September 2010. We recorded 2,861 deaths of livestock and poultry from predation by wild carnivores over the previous 3 years. Opossums (n = 677 predation events), raptors (n = 676) and ocelots (n = 539) were responsible for the highest numbers of killings. Poultry constituted the main target of wild predators (n = 2,548 deaths). Sheep (n = 201 events) and cattle (167) were the most affected by large predators such as jaguar Panthera onca and puma Puma concolor. Economic losses from predation were estimated to be USD 55,600 over the 3 years in the four communities. Predation frequency was positively correlated with livestock numbers (r2 = 0.87, P < 0.05) but negatively associated with wild prey abundance (r2 = 0.96, P < 0.05). Better husbandry practices focused on the safety and location of livestock enclosures and on reducing overabundance of dogs and regulating hunting on wild prey in rural areas may help mitigating conflict between wild predators and residents in the rainforests of south-east Mexico.

Monitoring an Endangered savannah ungulate, Grevy's zebra Equus grevyi: choosing a method for estimating population densities

Abstract: Methods that accurately estimate animal abundance or density are crucial for wildlife management. Although numerous techniques are available, there have been few comparisons of the precision and cost-effectiveness of different approaches. We assess the precision and cost of three methods for estimating densities of the Endangered Grevy's zebra Equus grevyi. We compare distance sampling and photographic capture–recapture, and a new technique, the random encounter model (REM) that uses camera-trap encounter rates to estimate density. All three methods provide comparable density estimates for Grevy's zebra and are preferable to the common practice of raw counts. Photographic capture–recapture is the most precise and line-transect distance sampling the least precise. Line transects and photographic capture–recapture surveys are cost-effective in the first year and REM is most cost-effective in the long-term. The methods used here for Grevy's zebra may be applied to other rangeland ungulates. We suggest that for single species monitoring programmes in which individuals can be identified, photographic capture–recapture surveys may be the preferred method for estimating wildlife abundances. When encounter rates are low, distance sampling lacks the precision of the other methods but its cost advantage may make it appropriate for long-term or multi-species monitoring programmes. The REM is an efficient and precise method of estimating densities but has high initial equipment costs. We believe REM has the potential to work well for many species but it requires independent estimates of animal movements and group size.

Biological attributes and major threats as predictors of the vulnerability of species: a case study with Brazilian reef fishes

Abstract: Global biodiversity declines and increasing rates of extinction necessitate the assessment and prediction of the vulnerability of species to extinction. Here, we examine the relationships between conservation status and ecological traits of reef fish species of the Brazilian biogeographical province. We used binomial tests and a logistic regression to address two questions. Do biological attributes differ between threatened and non-threatened fishes? Which combination of traits and impacts exerts greater influence on species threat status? Of the 559 species, 36 are categorized as threatened (compiled from global, national and local Red Lists). Three species are categorized as Critically Endangered, seven as Endangered and 26 as Vulnerable. Our analyses revealed that Elasmobranchii, sex-changing bony fishes and endemic species are the most vulnerable reef fishes in Brazilian waters. Body size and trophic category were identified as good predictors of the vulnerability of a species to extinction. Small-bodied species that are exploited by the ornamental trade and have complex reproductive strategies are also of concern. Such combinations of attributes could be of value in predicting which reef fish species elsewhere have a high risk of extinction.

Demand and proximity: drivers of illegal forest resource extraction.

Abstract: Illegal extraction from protected areas is often shaped by the surrounding socio-economic landscape. We coupled village-scale socio-economic parameters collected using household surveys with measured levels of illegal resource extraction proximate to study villages to investigate the socio-economic drivers of illegal extraction from Kibale National Park, Uganda. The level of illegal tree harvesting and the number of illegal entry trails into the Park were driven by subsistence demand from villages adjacent to the Park and by for-profit extraction to supply local urban markets, whereas grazing in the Park was linked to high livestock ownership. Capital asset wealth, excluding livestock, was found to mitigate illegal resource extraction from the Park. We also found high human population density to coincide spatially with park-based tourism, research and carbon sequestration employment opportunities. Conservation strategies should be integrated with national policy to meet the needs of local communities and to manage urban demand to reduce illegal extraction from protected areas.

Media coverage of management of the black bear Ursus thibetanus in Japan

Abstract: Asiatic black bears Ursus thibetanus are threatened in Japan but are generally considered to be nuisance animals because of the damage they cause to agriculture and property, and because they cause human casualties. We analysed media coverage of black bears in Japan to understand social discourse and potential influences on public perceptions about conservation of bears. Content analysis of a total of 348 articles in a local and a national newspaper revealed that the number of articles regarding black bears and the proportion of negative articles that describe the risks posed by bears increased concomitant with a rise in sightings of bears. Local newspapers included more articles about the risks posed by bears than national newspapers. This potentially reflects and can amplify local residents' perceptions of risk. The proportion of thematic and episodic articles was unrelated to increases in bear appearances. More extensive communications with media representatives by biologists, government officials and police are needed to enhance public knowledge of bears and lead to broader perspectives on their management.

Livestock depredation and mitigation methods practised by resident and nomadic pastoralists around Waza National Park, Cameroon

Abstract: Conflict between humans and lions Panthera leo is a key factor driving population declines of lions in Africa, especially in communal lands and on the edges of small protected areas. We assessed this conflict in Waza National Park, Cameroon, in 2008 through an interview survey. A total of 207 resident and 174 nomadic pastoralists were interviewed. Results indicated high levels of livestock depredation around the Park, with attacks occurring most often at night. Lions were economically a substantial threat accounting for total losses of EUR 100,000 per annum. Per household, resident pastoralists lost one cow and nomadic pastoralists two cows per annum, equating to c. EUR 260 and 520, respectively. To mitigate these losses resident pastoralists used enclosures for nocturnal protection of their livestock more than nomadic pastoralists, who tended to herd livestock more during pasture. Improved mitigation methods pertaining to herding practice, the use of enclosures and the presence of dogs resulted in a reduction of 25% livestock depredation and 50% cattle depredation. These methods could be further improved, however, education and awareness about the ranging behaviour of lions during different seasons and periods of the day is important for all pastoralists. Additionally, park management needs to be improved through effective law enforcement.

Large carnivore attacks on humans in central India: a case study from the Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve

Abstract: We examined human and ecological attributes of attacks by tigers Panthera tigris and leopards Panthera pardus on humans in and around the Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve in the Chandrapur District of central India to provide recommendations to prevent or mitigate conflicts between people and large carnivores. During 2005–2011 132 carnivore attacks on humans occurred, 71 (54%) of which were lethal to humans. Tigers and leopards were responsible for 78% and 22% of attacks, respectively. Significantly more victims were attacked while collecting minor forest products than during other activities. Probability of attack significantly decreased with increasing distance from forests and villages, and attacks occurred most frequently in the forested north-eastern corridor of the study area. Human activities near the Reserve need to be regulated and limited as much as possible to reduce human mortality and other conflicts. Increasing access to alternative fuel sources (e.g. biogas, solar) may reduce the pressure of timber harvesting on protected areas. Residents should be trained in identifying carnivore sign and in ways to reduce their vulnerability when working outdoors.

Evidence-based management to regulate the impact of tourism at a key marine turtle rookery on Zakynthos Island, Greece

Abstract: This study evaluates how key beach features influence suitability for nesting by Endangered loggerhead marine turtles Caretta caretta at an internationally important rookery on Zakynthos Island, Greece. During 2007–2009 we assimilated information on beach structure (elevation above sea level and width), the distribution of all nesting (turtle tracks that resulted in nests) and non-nesting (turtle tracks that did not result in nests) turtle emergences from the sea along 6 km of beach, nest placement parameters (distance from sea and elevation above sea level), and beach use by visitors. We found that turtles preferentially emerged on steeper sections of beach, with higher nesting densities occurring on the most environmentally stable beaches. Elevation was a more reliable indicator of nest placement (1 m above sea level) than distance to shore. However, because nests on steeper slopes are located closer to shore, the risk of damage by tourism is increased in such areas. We calculated a potential 36% overlap of natural nest locations with use of the beach by tourists; however, the recorded overlap was 7% because of existing management protocols. This overlap could be further reduced by focusing conservation effort (i.e. further restricting use by people) on beach sections with the steepest inclines. For example, slopes of > 22° comprise 1 km of total beach area annually, the closure of which (above the immediate shoreline to allow passage) would completely protect 50% of nests. This study shows the value of evidence-based management as a practical scientific tool to conserve threatened species in dynamic protected areas that are of both environmental and economic importance.

The effectiveness of plant conservation measures: the Dianthus morisianus reintroduction

Abstract: The plant Dianthus morisianus Vals. (Caryophyllaceae) is endemic to Sardinia. The Autonomous Region of Sardinia funded a conservation project for this species because it is one of the most threatened plant on the island. The project comprises in situ and ex situ research and experimental projects, such as the construction of protective fences and reintroduction. Juvenile plants, germinated from 200 seeds collected over 2 years and propagated without horticultural treatment, were reintroduced in November 2010. The surviving 113 plants were reintroduced 150 m from the natural population and were monitored monthly. Two years later the survival rate was > 95%, and the fruit yield per plant was higher than that recorded in the natural population. This research emphasizes the importance of identifying an appropriate microhabitat for plant reintroduction. The use of juvenile plants aided the success of the reintroduction and reduced the mortality rate; the knowledge of the species biology, in particular the critical stage of their life cycle, is a crucial factor in plant reintroduction.

Review of the distribution and conservation status of the terrestrial reptiles of the Cape Verde Islands

Abstract: Research was supported by Fundacao para a Ciencia e Tecnologia (FCT) (SFRH/BD/25012/2005 and SFRH/BPD/79913/2011, to RV), PTDC/BIA-BDE/74288/2006. JCB and DJH have contracts with FCT (Programa Ciencia 2007/2008 Fundo Social Europeu) and Ministerio de Educacion y Ciencia, Spain (CGL2009–11663/BOS).

Population status, structure and distribution of the greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis in Nepal

Abstract: We assessed the abundance and distribution of the greater one-horned or Indian rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis in all its potential habitats in Nepal, using block counts. In April 2011 5,497 km were searched in 3,548 elephant-hours over 23 days. The validity of the block count was assessed by comparing it with counts obtained from long-term monitoring using photographic identification of individual rhinoceroses (ID-based), and estimates obtained by closed population sighting–mark–resighting in the 214 km2 of Chitwan National Park. A total of 534 rhinoceroses were found during the census, with 503 in Chitwan National Park (density 1 km−2), 24 in Bardia National Park (0.28 km−2) and seven in Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (0.1 km−2). In Chitwan 66% were adults, 12% subadults and 22% calves, with a female : male ratio of 1.24. The population estimate from sighting–mark–resighting was 72 (95% CI 71–78). The model with different detection probabilities for males and females had better support than the null model. In the Sauraha area of Chitwan estimates of the population obtained by block count (77) and ID-based monitoring (72) were within the 95% confidence interval of the estimate from sighting–mark–resighting. We recommend a country-wide block count for rhinoceroses every 3 years and annual ID-based monitoring in a sighting–mark–resighting framework within selected subpopulations. The sighting–mark–resighting technique provides the statistical rigour required for population estimates of the rhinoceros in Nepal and elsewhere.

Walking with lions: why there is no role for captive-origin lions Panthera leo in species restoration

Abstract: Despite formidable challenges and few successes in reintroducing large cats from captivity to the wild, the release of captives has widespread support from the general public and local governments, and continues to occur ad hoc. Commercial so-called lion Panthera leo encounter operations in Africa exemplify the issue, in which the captive breeding of the lion is linked to claims of reintroduction and broader conservation outcomes. In this article we assess the capacity of such programmes to contribute to in situ lion conservation. By highlighting the availability of wild founders, the unsuitability of captive lions for release and the evidence-based success of wild–wild lion translocations, we show that captive-origin lions have no role in species restoration. We also argue that approaches to reintroduction exemplified by the lion encounter industry do not address the reasons for the decline of lions in situ, nor do they represent a model that can be widely applied to restoration of threatened felids elsewhere.

Threatened predator on the equator: multi-point abundance estimates of the tiger Panthera tigris in central Sumatra

Abstract: Information on spatial and temporal variation in abundance is crucial for effective management of wildlife. Yet abundance estimates for the Critically Endangered Sumatran tiger Panthera tigris sumatrae are lacking from Riau, the province historically believed to hold the largest percentage of this subspecies. Recently, this area has had one of the highest global rates of deforestation. Using camera traps we investigated tiger abundance across peatland, flat lowland, and hilly lowland forest types in the province, and over time, in the newly established Tesso Nilo National Park, central Sumatra. We estimated densities using spatially explicit capture–recapture, calculated with DENSITY, and traditional capture–recapture models, calculated with CAPTURE. With spatially explicit capture–recapture the lowest tiger density (0.34 ± SE 0.24 per 100 km2) was estimated in the hilly lowland forest of Rimbang Baling and the highest (0.87 ± SE 0.33 per 100 km2) in the flat lowland forest of the Park. Repeated surveys in the Park documented densities of 0.63 ± SE 0.28 in 2005 to 0.87 ± SE 0.33 per 100 km2 in 2008. Compared to traditional capture–recapture the spatially explicit capture–recapture approach resulted in estimates 50% lower. Estimates of tiger density from this study were lower than most previous estimates in other parts of Sumatra. High levels of human activity in the area appear to limit tigers. The results of this study, which covered areas and habitat types not previously surveyed, are important for overall population estimates across the island, provide insight into the response of carnivores to habitat loss, and are relevant to the interventions needed to save the tiger.

Land abandonment may reduce disturbance and affect the breeding sites of an Endangered amphibian in northern Italy

Abstract: Although human-related disturbance is usually detrimental for biodiversity, in some instances it can simulate natural processes and benefit certain species. Changes in the disturbance regime, both natural and human-driven, can affect species that rely on it. The Apennine yellow-bellied toad Bombina variegata pachypus, an amphibian endemic to peninsular Italy, has declined throughout its range in the last 3 decades. We sought to identify the drivers of the decline in the region of Liguria, at the north-western limit of its distribution. In 2009 and 2010 we surveyed sites where the species occurred until 2005 and related the persistence of breeding activity to the characteristics of sites. Populations had disappeared from 50% of the sites between 2005 and 2009. Current breeding sites have less aquatic and bank vegetation, fewer predators and better insolation. Frequent disturbance events (desiccation and floods) were related to reduced vegetation, which in turn may decrease predator densities and increase insolation. In this region disturbance is provided by natural factors or, in the case of artificial water bodies, by regular maintenance carried out by landowners. The widespread land abandonment in Liguria can disrupt disturbance regimes, interrupting the removal of vegetation, and thus rapidly reduce the suitability of artificial sites. This was confirmed in our study, with most abandoned breeding sites occurring in formerly cultivated areas. Possible short-term conservation actions include creating new ponds, maintaining artificial water bodies and clearing vegetation. However, long-term conservation may be more problematic as the land abandonment process is unlikely to be reversed.

Using pingers to reduce bycatch of small cetaceans in Peru's small-scale driftnet fishery

Abstract: There is growing awareness that small-scale fisheries may have large impacts on threatened marine fauna. Bycatch of small cetaceans by the Peruvian small-scale driftnet fleet results in the deaths of thousands of animals annually. We sought to assess the effectiveness of acoustic alarms (pingers) for reducing the incidental capture of dolphins and porpoises by this fleet. Forty-three experimental trips (156 fishing sets) and 47 control trips (195 fishing sets) out of Salaverry Port, northern Peru, were observed from April 2009 to August 2011. Twenty-two percent of control sets captured small cetaceans (67 individuals) and 16% of experimental sets had captures of small cetaceans (33 individuals). The bycatch rate of experimental sets was 0.50 individuals km−2h−1, whereas for control sets the rate was 0.80 individuals km−2h−1. This 37% reduction in bycatch rate suggests that pingers may be effective in reducing the bycatch of small cetaceans in this fishery. Catch rates of the fishery's target shark and ray species were unchanged. Given the vast size of this fishery and its current levels of bycatch of small cetaceans (> 10,000 individuals annually), even the modest declines in bycatch we observed could result in reductions in mortality of hundreds or thousands of small cetaceans per annum. Challenges, including increased costs, to large-scale utilization of pingers have yet to be overcome. The harpooning of dolphins for use as bait will also need to be addressed for further reductions in dolphin and porpoise bycatch and mortality to be achievable.

Bat conservation in China: should protection of subterranean habitats be a priority?

Abstract: Subterranean environments are essential for the survival of many bat species and other cave fauna but these places are subject to increasing human disturbance. To examine the significance of subterranean habitats for the conservation of bats in China we surveyed bat species in 225 underground sites during 2003–2011. Our results show that 77% of bat species in China, including 30 nationally Endangered or Vulnerable species and nine endemic species, roost in caves and other subterranean habitats. The number of species in occupied roosts was 1–15. Almost 90% of the roosts surveyed contained signs of human disturbance, most of which was from recreational activities. One hundred and twenty-one roosts merit special concern because they harbour ≥ 6 species or > 1,000 individuals, or species of special concern (threatened or endemic species). Generally, larger roosts support more species and a greater abundance of bats than smaller roosts but there is no direct correlation between the presence of species of special concern and roost size. Disused tourist caves have significantly more bat species than other types of roosts. Our data demonstrate that roost disturbance by recreational activities has pronounced detrimental effects on the number of bat species and the presence of species of special concern. We discuss the social, economic and political issues that could adversely affect bat conservation in caves in China, and we recommend that protection of subterranean habitats should be a high priority for bat conservation.

Differences in stakeholder perceptions of the jaguar Panthera onca and puma Puma concolor in the tropical lowlands of Guatemala

Abstract: We conducted a survey questionnaire to assess and compare public perceptions and knowledge of jaguars Panthera onca and pumas Puma concolor among two stakeholder groups likely to come into conflict with these large carnivores: cattle ranchers living near protected areas and inhabitants of two villages located within the multiple-use forest of the Maya Biosphere Reserve, Guatemala. We tested whether stakeholder group (i.e. rancher or villager) or previous experience with livestock attacks by carnivores predicted a negative perception of jaguars and pumas. The odds of people fearing an attack on humans by these felids and of recognizing the ecological importance of these species was best explained by stakeholder group. Villagers exhibited a more negative perception towards these felids than did cattle ranchers. Our results highlight the importance of tailoring conservation programmes in high risk areas to the needs of specific stakeholder groups. Further research is needed to understand which factors (i.e. ecological settings, socio-economic differences) best explain these differences and whether these differences in perception vary within groups. Programmes that work with local people to assess the ecological importance of large predators and the true risks of carnivore attacks on livestock and humans along with low-cost conflict mitigation measures should be implemented to increase the level of tolerance towards these carnivores.

Prioritizing threats to improve conservation strategy for the tiger Panthera tigris in the Sundarbans Reserve Forest of Bangladesh

Abstract: Tigers Panthera tigris face a wide and complex array of threats. Given limited time and resources it is essential to direct conservation actions based on the relative importance of each threat. The Sundarbans Reserve Forest is the last stronghold of tigers in Bangladesh and supports one of the largest populations of tigers in the world. As in other tiger landscapes, the threats faced by the tigers have yet to be assessed. This study follows an approach developed by The Nature Conservancy to identify and prioritize threats and set a time-frame for their reduction. We identified a total of 23 threats; four were linked to tigers, two to prey and 17 to habitat. Of the identified threats, the highest ranked included poaching of tigers, poaching of prey, sea-level rise, upstream water extraction/divergence, wood collection, fishing, and harvesting of other aquatic resources. All threats were then scheduled for reduction, based on the rank and current information base for each threat and the likely time-frame for implementing potential solutions. This study demonstrates how the application of a prioritization framework can greatly improve the focus and likelihood of success of any species- or ecosystem-based conservation programme.