Showing papers in "Behavior Research Methods Instruments & Computers in 2000"

SPSS and SAS programs for determining the number of components using parallel analysis and Velicer's MAP test.

Abstract: Popular statistical software packages do not have the proper procedures for determining the number of components in factor and principal components analyses. Parallel analysis and Velicer's minimum average partial (MAP) test are validated procedures, recommended widely by statisticians. However, many researchers continue to use alternative, simpler, but flawed procedures, such as the eigenvalues-greater-than-one rule. Use of the proper procedures might be increased if these procedures could be conducted within familiar software environments. This paper describes brief and efficient programs for using SPSS and SAS to conduct parallel analyses and the MAP test.

Discovering hidden time patterns in behavior: T-patterns and their detection

Abstract: This article deals with the definition and detection of particular kinds of temporal patterns in behavior, which are sometimes obvious or well known, but other times difficult to detect, either directly or with standard statistical methods. Characteristics of well-known behavior patterns were abstracted and combined in order to define a scale-independent, hierarchical time pattern type, called aT-pattern. A corresponding detection algorithm was developed and implemented in a computer program, called Theme. The proposed pattern typology and detection algorithm are based on the definition and detection of a particular relationship between pairs of events in a time series, called acritical interval relation. The proposed bottom-up, level-by-level (or breadth-first) search algorithm is based on a binary tree of such relations. The algorithm first detects simpler patterns. Then, more complex and complete patterns evolve through the connection of simpler ones, pattern completeness competition, and pattern selection. Interindividual T-patterns in a quarter-hour interaction between two children are presented, showing that complex hidden T-patterns may be found by Theme in such behavioral streams. Finally, implications for studies of complexity, self-organization, and dynamic patterns are discussed.

EthoLog 2.2: A tool for the transcription and timing of behavior observation sessions

Abstract: EthoLog is a tool that aids in the transcription and timing of behavior observation sessions--experimental or naturalistic, from video/audio tapes or registering real time. It was created with Visual Basic and runs on Windows (3.x/9x). The user types the key codes for the predefined behavioral categories, and EthoLog registers their sequence and timing and saves the resulting data in ASCII output files. A sequential analysis matrix can be generated from the sequential data. The output files may be edited, converted to plain text files for printing, or exported to a spreadsheet program, such as MS Excel, for further analyses.

The Observer Video-Pro: new software for the collection, management, and presentation of time-structured data from videotapes and digital media files.

Abstract: The Observer Video-Pro is a system for collecting, managing, analyzing, and presenting observational data. It integrates The Observer software with time code and multimedia hardware components. It extends the functionality of a conventional real-time event recording program in various ways. Observational data can be collected, reviewed, and edited with synchronized display of the corresponding video images. For optimal visual feedback during coding, one can display the video image in a window on the computer screen. Video playback from either a VCR or a digital media file can be controlled by the computer, allowing software-controlled jog, shuttle, and search functions. Besides a wide range of VCRs, The Observer Video-Pro supports all major digital video file formats. The software allows the user to summarize research findings in numerical, graphical, or multimedia format. One can create a time--event plot for a quick glance at the temporal structure of the observed process, or run specific analysis procedures and generate reports with statistics. An Event Summary function is available for exploratory and qualitative analysis. Video material can be summarized in a Video Play List, which allows on-screen summary presentations or the creation of highlight compilations on tape, CD, or other media. Video images can be captured and saved as disk files, for use as illustrations in documents, slides for presentations, and so forth. In this paper we describe the design and operation of the system, illustrated with a case study from research on Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI).

Evaluation of a Web-based introductory psychology course: I. Learning and satisfaction in on-line versus lecture courses

Abstract: We offered introductory psychology on the World-Wide Web (WWW) and evaluated the on-line format relative to the traditional lecture-test format, using a pretest-posttest nonequivalent control group design. Multiple sections of the introductory course were offered each semester; on-line and lecture sections were taught by the same instructor, the same textbook was used, and the same in-class examinations were taken. For on-line sections, mastery quizzes, interactive individual exercises, and weekly laboratory meetings replaced lectures. Increased content knowledge was greater for the students in the Web sections, as was in-class examination performance. Use of the WWW and computers for academic purposes increased more in the on-line sections, and the on-line students showed a greater decrease in computer anxiety. The students in the on-line sections expressed appreciation for course components and the convenience of the course, but the lecture sections received higher ratings on course evaluations than did the on-line sections. Learning and course satisfaction were dissociated in the two course formats.

Motion pattern and posture: correctly assessed by calibrated accelerometers.

Abstract: Basic motion patterns and posture can be distinguished by multichannel accelerometry, as recently shown. A refinement of this method appeared to be desirable to further increase its effectiveness, especially to distinguish walking and climbing stairs, and body rotation during sleep. Recordings were made of 31 subjects, according to a standard protocol comprising 13 motions and postures. This recording was repeated three times with appropriate permutation. Five uni-axial sensors and three sites of placement (sternum with three axes, right and left thigh) were selected. A hierarchical classification strategy used a standard protocol (i.e., individual reference patterns) to distinguish subtypes of moving behaviors and posture. The analysis method of the actometer signals reliably detected 13 different postural and activity conditions (only 3.2% misclassifications). A minimum set of sensors can be found for a given application; for example, a two-sensor configuration would clearly suffice to differentiate between four basic classes (sitting, standing, lying, moving) in ambulatory monitoring.

Naming times and standardized norms for the Italian PD/DPSS set of 266 pictures: direct comparisons with American, English, French, and Spanish published databases.

Abstract: The present study provides Italian normative measures for 266 line drawings belonging to the new set of pictures developed by Lotto, Dell’Acqua, and Job (in press). The pictures have been standardized on the following measures: number of letters, number of syllables, name frequency, within-category typicality, familiarity, age of acquisition, name agreement, and naming time. In addition to providing the measures, the present study focuses on indirect and direct comparisons (i.e., correlations) of the present norms with databases provided by comparable studies in Italian (in which normative data were collected with Snodgrass & Vanderwart’s set of pictures; Nisi, Longoni, & Snodgrass, 2000), in British English (Barry, Morrison, & Ellis, 1997), in American English (Snodgrass & Vanderwart, 1980; Snodgrass & Yuditsky, 1996), in French (Alario & Ferrand, 1999), and in Spanish (Sanfeliu & Fernandez, 1996).

Graze: a program to analyze recordings of the jaw movements of ruminants.

Abstract: Graze is a user friendly, Microsoft Windows 95/NT program for analyzing jaw movement recordings taken with the IGER Behavior Recorder. The program displays a plot of the jaw movement amplitude (vertical axis) against time (horizontal axis). Individual jaw movements can be automatically identified, using amplitude and frequency criteria specified by the user. Bouts of jaw movements can then be analyzed and are automatically identified as either grazing or ruminating. Behaviors other than grazing and ruminating (such as drinking or eating supplements) can also be identified and marked by the user. Identified jaw movements and bouts of behavior are superimposed on the jaw data display. Finally, the user can perform a bout analysis, which discriminates between bites and chews during eating and generates a summary file.

Statistical power for the two-factor repeated measures ANOVA

Abstract: Determining a priori power for univariate repeated measures (RM) ANOVA designs with two or more within-subjects factors that have different correlational patterns between the factors is currently difficult due to the unavailability of accurate methods to estimate the error variances used in power calculations. The main objective of this study was to determine the effect of the correlation between the levels in one RM factor on the power of the other RM factor. Monte Carlo simulation procedures were used to estimate power for the A, B, and AB tests of a 2 x 3, a 2 x 6, a 2 x 9, a 3 x 3, a 3 x 6, and a 3 x 9 design under varying experimental conditions of effect size (small, medium, and large), average correlation (.4 and .8), alpha (.01 and .05), and sample size (n = 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30). Results indicated that the greater the magnitude of the differences between the average correlation among the levels of Factor A and the average correlation in the AB matrix, the lower the power for Factor B (and vice versa). Equations for estimating the error variance of each test of the two-way model were constructed by examining power and mean square error trends across different correlation matrices. Support for the accuracy of these formulae is given, thus allowing for direct analytic power calculations in future studies.

Computerized games to study the development of attention in childhood

Abstract: Children enjoy playing games. We can take advantage of this in the designs of computerized tasks that will engage their interest. These designs also serve to advance the study of chronometric measures, such as manual and saccadic reaction times and event related potentials, with young children. The goals of our method development are (1) to allow for comparable tasks across a wide variety of ages, (2) to make possible comparisons of child performance with data gathered in adult cognitive studies, and (3) to help to support inferences about the development of underlying mechanisms. We have designed a battery of computerized tasks in order to study the development of attention functions of alertness, orienting, and executive control during childhood. Our purpose is to describe each of these tasks in detail and present the results that have been obtained so far. The battery was tested using a sample of 5-year-old children as subjects.

Quantification of swim patterns in the Morris water maze

Abstract: Spatial learning and memory in rodents is most often assessed in the Morris water maze. Neurobiologists have to distinguish behavioral patterns to unravel underlying neuronal systems. We analyzed swim patterns of mice videotaped before and after training with a multi-trial procedure in the water maze. In addition to traditional parameters, the animals' position in relation to trained and other possible platform locations was estimated five times per second by an image analysis system. This parameter, cumulative distance to platform, was correlated with time spent in the platform quadrant but not with latency to and crossings of the platform location. We detected a subgroup of animals with concentric patterns within the group of spatial/persistent patterns. Random patterns were classified as well. Swim patterns before training were not predictive for the one after training. In summary, image analysis systems have made it very convenient to quantify behavior. Using their capacity, we have further improved the analysis of swim patterns, revealing animals' different approaches to solve a problem.

Resampling approach to statistical inference: bootstrapping from event-related potentials data.

Abstract: We propose the use of the bootstrap resampling technique as a tool to assess the within-subject reliability of experimental modulation effects on event-related potentials (ERPs). The assessment of the within-subject reliability is relevant in all those cases when the subject score is obtained by some estimation procedure, such as averaging. In these cases, possible deviations from the assumptions on which the estimation procedure relies may lead to severely biased results and, consequently, to incorrect functional inferences. In this study, we applied bootstrap analysis to data from an experiment aimed at investigating the relationship between ERPs and memory processes. ERPs were recorded from two groups of subjects engaged in a recognition memory task. During the study phase, subjects in Group A were required to make an orthographic judgment on 160 visually presented words, whereas subjects in Group B were only required to pay attention to the words. During the test phase all subjects were presented with the 160 previously studied words along with 160 new words and were required to decide whether the current word was “old” or “new.” To assess the effect of word imagery value, half of the words had a high imagery value and half a low imagery value. Analyses of variance performed on ERPs showed that an imagery-induced modulation of the old/new effect was evident only for subjects who were not engaged in the orthographic task during the study phase. This result supports the hypothesis that this modulation is due to some aspect of the recognition memory process and not to the stimulus encoding operations that occur during the recognition memory task. However, bootstrap analysis on the same data showed that the old/new effect on ERPs was not reliable for all the subjects. This result suggests that only a cautious inference can be made from these data.

Evolving faces from principal components.

Abstract: A system that uses an underlying genetic algorithm to evolve faces in response to user selection is described. The descriptions of faces used by the system are derived from a statistical analysis of a set of faces. The faces used for generation are transformed to an average shape by defining locations around each face and morphing. The shape-free images and shape vectors are then separately subjected to principal components analysis. Novel faces are generated by recombining the image components (eigenfaces) and then morphing their shape according to the principal components of the shape vectors (eigenshapes). The prototype system indicates that such a statistical analysis of a set of faces can produce plausible, randomly generated photographic images.

SurveyWiz and factorWiz: JavaScript Web pages that make HTML forms for research on the Internet.

Abstract: SurveyWiz and factorWiz are Web pages that act as wizards to create HTML forms that enable one to collect data via the Web. SurveyWiz allows the user to enter survey questions or personality test items with a mixture of text boxes and scales of radio buttons. One can add demographic questions of age, sex, education, and nationality with the push of a button. FactorWiz creates the HTML for within-subjects, two-factor designs as large as 9 x 9, or higher order factorial designs up to 81 cells. The user enters levels of the row and column factors, which can be text, images, or other multimedia. FactorWiz generates the stimulus combinations, randomizes their order, and creates the page. In both programs HTML is displayed in a window, and the user copies it to a text editor to save it. When uploaded to a Web server and supported by a CGI script, the created Web pages allow data to be collected, coded, and saved on the server. These programs are intended to assist researchers and students in quickly creating studies that can be administered via the Web.

Automatic disambiguation of morphosyntax in spoken language corpora

Abstract: The use of computer tools has led to major advances in the study of spoken language corpora. One area that has shown particular progress is the study of child language development. Although it is now easy to lexically tag every word in a spoken language corpus, one still has to choose between numerous ambiguous forms, especially with languages such as French or English, where more than 70% of words are ambiguous. Computational linguistics can now provide a fully automatic disambiguation of lexical tags. The tool presented here (POST) can tag and disambiguate a large text in a few seconds. This tool complements systems dealing with language transcription, and also suggests further theoretical developments in the assessment of the status of morphosyntax in spoken language corpora. The program currently works for French and English, but can be easily adapted for use with other languages. The analysis and computation of a corpus produced by normal French children aged two to four, as well as of a sample corpus produced by French SLI children, are given as examples.

Behavior and autonomic nervous system function assessed via heart period measures: the case of hyperarousal in boys with fragile X syndrome.

Abstract: Physiological responses may inform us about and help us to interpret behavioral responses. For example, hyperarousal may be a source of behavior problems in children with fragile X syndrome (FXS). To evaluate this approach, we examined heart period data in specific contexts in boys with FXS and in normally developing chronological-age-matched boys. Spectral analysis was used to evaluate the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems’ contributions to heart period. Boys with FXS had shorter interbeat intervals, lower parasympathetic activity, and similar sympathetic activity. Also, the groups were differentially responsive to experimental challenge. These results have important implications for our understanding of the basic nervous system dysfunction in FXS and for the strategies likely to be effective in terms of pharmacological intervention with these children. These methods can be applied to a variety of contexts and populations, including children who are sensory defensive, socially avoidant, inattentive, or hyperactive.

Determining the number of factors to retain: Q windows-based FORTRAN-IMSL program for parallel analysis

Abstract: Parallel analysis (PA; Horn, 1965) is a technique for determining the number of factors to retain in exploratory factor analysis that has been shown to be superior to more widely known methods (Zwick & Velicer, 1986). Despite its merits, PA is not widely used in the psychological literature, probably because the method is unfamiliar and because modern, Windows-compatible software to perform PA is unavailable. We provide a FORTRAN-IMSL program for PA that runs on a PC under Windows; it is interactive and designed to suit the range of problems encountered in most psychological research. Furthermore, we provide sample output from the PA program in the form of tabled values that can be used to verify the program operation; or, they can be used either directly or with interpolation to meet specific needs of the researcher.

Classification of rat behavior with an image-processing method and a neural network.

Abstract: Video recordings of 11 rats were digitized at five frames per second, and parameters describing the shape and the position of the rat were calculated. The behavior displayed by the rats was observed by an experienced observer. Separate neural networks were trained and validated, using the data for each individual rat. The neural networks correctly classified an average of 76.53% of the frames in the validation set and 98.18% of the frames in the training set. A single neural network was trained with 6 rats and validated with 5 rats. The neural network correctly classified 63.74% of the frames in the validation set and 82.85% of the frames in the training set.

QUAID: a questionnaire evaluation aid for survey methodologists.

Abstract: QUAID (question-understanding aid) is a software tool that assists survey methodologists, social scientists, and designers of questionnaires in improving the wording, syntax, and semantics of questions. The tool identifies potential problems that respondents might have in comprehending the meaning of questions on questionnaires. These problems can be scrutinized by researchers when they revise questions to improve question comprehension and, thereby, enhance the reliability and validity of answers. QUAID was designed to identify nine classes of problems, but only five of these problems are addressed in this article: unfamiliar technical term, vague or imprecise relative term, vague or ambiguous noun phrase, complex syntax, and working memory overload. We compared the output of QUAID with ratings of language experts who evaluated a corpus of questions on the five classes of problems. The corpus consisted of 505 questions on 11 surveys developed by the U.S. Census Bureau. Analyses of hit rates, false alarm rates, d' scores, recall scores, and precision scores revealed that QUAID was able to identify these five problems with questions, although improvements in QUAID's performance are anticipated in future research and development.

Tell me, what did you see? The stimulus on computers.

Abstract: Most psychology experiments start with a stimulus, and, for an increasing number of studies, the stimulus is presented on a computer monitor. Usually, that monitor is a CRT, although other technologies are becoming available. The monitor is a sampling device; the sampling occurs in four dimensions: spatial, temporal, luminance, and chromatic. This paper reviews some of the important issues in each of these sampling dimensions and gives some recommendations for how to use the monitor effectively to present the stimulus. In general, the position is taken that to understand what the stimulus actually is requires a clear specification of the physical properties of the stimulus, since the actual experience of the stimulus is determined both by the physical variables and by the psychophysical variables of how the stimulus is handled by our sensory systems.

Internet research: Self-monitoring and judgments of attractiveness

Abstract: Two studies examined the relationship between self-monitoring and factors influencing romantic attraction to others. In Study 1, participants completed an Internet-mediated version of the Self-Monitoring Scale (Gangestad & Snyder, 1985) and indicated which of two people (one physically attractive, one with a more desirable personality) they found most attractive. Results matched previous findings (Snyder, Berscheid, & Glick, 1985), but the effect was smaller. Study 2, a paper-and-pencil replication of Study 1, examined whether the weaker effect was due to Internet mediation and found no differences in the choices made by high and low self-monitors. Results suggested that while determinants of attraction may vary for different populations, Internet research methods can tap the same phenomena as traditional laboratory studies.

EPA2000: a multilingual, programmable computer assessment of off-line metacognition in children with mathematical-learning disabilities.

Abstract: EPA2000 is a program for the assessment of off-line measured metacognitive skills and arithmetical performances in primary school children with mathematical-learning disabilities. The program is designed as a script engine. The concept makes it possible to modify and translate the test into different languages without reprogramming. A user-friendly script editor is built-in, with which all of the parameters of the test can be modified and translated in different languages.

Regression analysis of correlated binary outcomes

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to describe and illustrate a regression approach to the analysis of correlated binary outcomes (Liang & Zeger, 1986). Ignoring the correlations between repeated observations can lead to invalid inferences. This approach extends logistic regression to account for repeated observations in each of a series of individuals. In this paper, I present a nontechnical introduction to the generalized estimating equations (GEE) approach. A fictitious example is used to demonstrate that GEE regression correctly adjusts for the correlations between repeated binary observations. The approach is illustrated with an analysis of safer sex practices among high-risk teenagers.

Measurement and meaning of head movements in everyday face-to-face communicative interaction.

Abstract: Methodological approaches in which data on nonverbal behavior are collected usually involve interpretative methods in which raters must identify a set of defined categories of behavior. However, present knowledge about the qualitative aspects of head movement behavior calls for recording detailed transcriptions of behavior. These records are a prerequisite for investigating the function and meaning of head movement patterns. A method for directly collecting data on head movement behavior is introduced. Using small ultrasonic transducers, which are attached to various parts of an index person’s body (head and shoulders), a microcomputer determines receiver-transducer distances. Three-dimensional positions are calculated by triangulation. These data are used for further calculations concerning the angular orientation of the head and the direction, size, and speed of head movements (in rotational, lateral, and sagittal dimensions). Further analyses determine relevant changes in movements, identify segments of movements, and classify the quantifications of movement patterns. The measured patterns of nonverbal behavior can be accurately related to features of verbal communication and other time-related variables (e.g., psychophysiological measures). To estimate the possible meanings of behavioral patterns, a heuristic is proposed that includes the situational context as the basis of interpretation.

Behavioral test systems in marmoset monkeys.

Abstract: A number of neurobehavioral methods have been developed to test behavior in marmoset monkeys. These test systems are (1) the bungalow test, which quantifies spontaneous explorative behavior, (2) the hand-eye coordination test, which tests a learned task of coordinated motor behavior, and (3) the fear-potentiated startle response, which tests and quantifies pathological anxiety manifested by a response of fright. The test systems are extensively discussed, and the value of these test systems is exemplified by applying them to neurological disorders to register disease activity and drug efficacy.

FISH 3: a microworld for studying social dilemmas and resource management.

Abstract: A Java-based microworld environment for studying resource management is described. FISH 3 may be used in research or the classroom to investigate commons dilemmas and resource dilemmas. The program uses ocean fishing as its metaphor; participants (“fishers”) experience the metaphor through both graphics (“fish” may be seen in an ocean) and text (e.g., resource replenishment is translated as “spawning”). In either stand-alone or networked modes, either with all human fishers or a mixture of human and computer fishers, 15 parameters such as the number of resource units (fish), participants (fishers), and trials (seasons), payoff values, the rate and period of resource regeneration (spawning), harvesting greed by computer fishers, awareness of other harvesters’ actions, uncertainty in the amount of the resource, operating costs, and whether the resource is visible to harvesters may be varied.

Standardization and decomposition of rates: useful analytic techniques for behavior and health studies.

Abstract: Standardization and decomposition are widely used analytic techniques in population studies for adjusting the impact of compositional factors on rates. This study demonstrates the application of these methods to behavior and health studies. Bootstrapping is used to estimate standard errors of the component effects and to conduct significance tests for them. The authors have developed a Windows-based computer program that is demonstrated in the study for standardization and decomposition analysis by using empirical data on HIV seropositivity rates in two injection-drug-using populations in the northeastern United States.

The electronic mood device: design, construction, and application.

Abstract: The electronic mood device (EMD) is designed to help answer questions about the variability and dynamics of emotions. It is a small, portable instrument used for repeated recording of moods and feelings. Both construction and operation of the EMD are described. The EMD can best be conceived of as an electronic mood adjective checklist. Persons using the EMD are signaled at designated (e.g., hourly) or random intervals to register their mood or feelings. Paper and pencil are not required. An application is given. It shows how feelings vary within and between persons and during the day. It is concluded that the EMD offers several advantages over paper-and-pencil instruments. Retrospective use is impossible. Timing and registration are accurate. Data handling is fast. Potential future applications are suggested.

Classifying postures of freely moving rodents with the help of Fourier descriptors and a neural network.

Abstract: A computerized method for classifying the postures of freely moving rodents is presented. The behavior of the rats was recorded on videotape by means of a camera hanging perpendicular to an open field. An automatic tracking system (10 images/sec) was used to transform the video images of postures into a binary image, thereby providing silhouettes in a computer format. The contours of these silhouettes were used for determining their characteristic features with the help of a Fourier transformation. The resulting features were classified with the help of a Kohonen network composed of 32 neurons. The four bestwinning neurons, rather than the usual one, were used for the classification. The resolution (11,090 distinct classes of postures), reliability (96.9%), and validity of this method were determined. With the use of the same approach, the effectiveness of this method for classifying behaviors was illustrated by analyzing grooming (247 grooming images vs. 4,950 nongrooming images). We found 15.4% false positives and 2.5% false negatives.

The study of locomotor pointing in virtual reality: the validation of a test set-up.

Abstract: The goal of this experiment was to validate an experimental set-up for studying locomotor pointing. The specific and also original element of this set-up was the interactive nature of virtual reality and movement production. This interaction was achieved through the coupling of a treadmill and a Silicon Graphics system. This latter system generated on a screen (3 x 2.3 m) an environmental array that moved according to the action produced by subjects on a treadmill. The task was to place either foot on a spatial target that appeared on the floor in front of the subject's displacement trajectory. We analyzed the step length patterns of subjects approaching these targets, along with the current target-subject relationship. The results are in agreement with a perception-action coupling type of control mechanism that operates continuously as the subject approaches the desired target. Apparently, these findings mirror observations of real-life locomotion, indicating that the present set-up provides a valid and useful tool for examining human locomotion.