Showing papers on "Stressor published in 2005"
TL;DR: There is growing interest in moving away from unidirectional models of the stress-depression association, toward recognition of the effects of contexts and personal characteristics on the occurrence of stressors, and on the likelihood of progressive and dynamic relationships between stress and depression over time.
Abstract: Improved methods of assessment and research design have established a robust and causal association between stressful life events and major depressive episodes. The chapter reviews these developments briefly and attempts to identify gaps in the field and new directions in recent research. There are notable shortcomings in several important topics: measurement and evaluation of chronic stress and depression; exploration of potentially different processes of stress and depression associated with first-onset versus recurrent episodes; possible gender differences in exposure and reactivity to stressors; testing kindling/sensitization processes; longitudinal tests of diathesis-stress models; and understanding biological stress processes associated with naturally occurring stress and depressive outcomes. There is growing interest in moving away from unidirectional models of the stress-depression association, toward recognition of the effects of contexts and personal characteristics on the occurrence of stressors, and on the likelihood of progressive and dynamic relationships between stress and depression over time-including effects of childhood and lifetime stress exposure on later reactivity to stress.
2,522 citations
TL;DR: The authors report a meta-analytic test of a two-dimensional work stressor framework with respect to stressors' relationships with strains, motivation, and performance Hindrance stressors had a
Abstract: This article reports a meta-analytic test of a two-dimensional work stressor framework with respect to stressors' relationships with strains, motivation, and performance Hindrance stressors had a
1,752 citations
TL;DR: The stress response is subserved by the stress system, which is located both in the central nervous system and the periphery, and the principal effectors include corticotropin-releasing hormone; arginine vasopressin; proopiomelanocortin-derived peptides alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone and beta-endorphin; and the glucocorticoids.
Abstract: ▪ The stress response is subserved by the stress system, which is located both in the central nervous system and the periphery. The principal effectors of the stress system include corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH); arginine vasopressin; the proopiomelanocortin-derived peptides α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone and β-endorphin, the glucocorticoids; and the catecholamines norepinephrine and epinephrine. Appropriate responsiveness of the stress system to stressors is a crucial prerequisite for a sense of well-being, adequate performance of tasks, and positive social interactions. By contrast, inappropriate responsiveness of the stress system may impair growth and development and may account for a number of endocrine, metabolic, autoimmune, and psychiatric disorders. The development and severity of these conditions primarily depend on the genetic vulnerability of the individual, the exposure to adverse environmental factors, and the timing of the stressful events, given that prenatal life, infanc...
1,702 citations
TL;DR: The relationship between psychosocial stressors and disease is affected by the nature, number, and persistence of the stressors as well as by the individual's biological vulnerability.
Abstract: Stressors have a major influence upon mood, our sense of well-being, behavior, and health. Acute stress responses in young, healthy individuals may be adaptive and typically do not impose a health burden. However, if the threat is unremitting, particularly in older or unhealthy individuals, the long-term effects of stressors can damage health. The relationship between psychosocial stressors and disease is affected by the nature, number, and persistence of the stressors as well as by the individual's biological vulnerability (i.e., genetics, constitutional factors), psychosocial resources, and learned patterns of coping. Psychosocial interventions have proven useful for treating stress-related disorders and may influence the course of chronic diseases.
1,518 citations
TL;DR: Overall, MDD and ND individuals exhibited similar baseline and stress cortisol levels, but MDD patients had much higher cortisol levels during the recovery period than their ND counterparts, and blunted reactivity-impaired recovery pattern observed among the afternoon studies was most pronounced in studies with older and more severely depressed patients.
1,086 citations
TL;DR: It is found that the infralimbic and prelimbic regions of the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (mPFCv) in rats detect whether a stressor is under the organism's control and implies that the presence of control inhibits stress-induced neural activity in brainstem nuclei, in contrast to the prevalent view that such activity is induced by a lack of control.
Abstract: The degree of behavioral control that an organism has over a stressor is a potent modulator of the stressor's impact; uncontrollable stressors produce numerous outcomes that do not occur if the stressor is controllable. Research on controllability has focused on brainstem nuclei such as the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN). Here we find that the infralimbic and prelimbic regions of the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (mPFCv) in rats detect whether a stressor is under the organism's control. When a stressor is controllable, stress-induced activation of the DRN is inhibited by the mPFCv, and the behavioral sequelae of uncontrollable stress are blocked. This suggests a new function for the mPFCv and implies that the presence of control inhibits stress-induced neural activity in brainstem nuclei, in contrast to the prevalent view that such activity is induced by a lack of control.
895 citations
TL;DR: It is found that Hispanic and Asian-American caregivers were more depressed than their White non-Hispanic peers and all groups of ethnic minority caregivers reported worse physical health than Whites.
Abstract: Purpose: We investigated ethnic differences in caregiver background variables, objective stressors, filial obligations beliefs, psychological and social resources, coping processes, and psychological and physical health. Design and Methods: We used a metaanalysis to integrate the results of 116 empirical studies. Results: Ethnic minority caregivers had a lower socioeconomic status, were younger, were less likely to be a spouse, and more likely to receive informal support. They provided more care than White caregivers and had stronger filial obligations beliefs than White caregivers. Asian-American caregivers, but not African-American and Hispanic caregivers, used less formal support than non-Hispanic White caregivers. Whereas African-American caregivers had lower levels of caregiver burden and depression than White caregivers, we found that Hispanic and Asian-American caregivers were more depressed than theirWhitenon-Hispanicpeers.However,allgroupsof ethnic minority caregivers reported worse physical health than Whites. Observed ethnic differences in burden and depression were influenced by study characteristics, such as the type of illness of the care recipient and the representativeness of the sample. Implications: The results suggest that more specific theories are needed to explain differential effects of ethnic minority groups of caregivers. Intervention needs vary, in part, between ethnic groups
671 citations
01 Jan 2005
663 citations
TL;DR: The hypothesis that differential exposure to stress and negative life events is one of many ways in which socioeconomic inequalities in health are produced in society is supported.
Abstract: It has been hypothesized that exposure to stress and negative life events is related to poor health outcomes, and that differential exposure to stress plays a role in socioeconomic disparities in health. Data from three waves of the Americans' Changing Lives study (n = 3,617) were analyzed to investigate prospectively the relationship among socioeconomic indicators, five measures of stress/negative life events, and the health outcomes of mortality, functional limitations, and self-rated health. The results revealed that (1) life events and other types of stressors are clearly related to socioeconomic position; (2) a count of negative lifetime events was positively associated with mortality; (3) a higher score on a financial stress scale was predictive of severe/moderate functional limitations and fair/poor self-rated health at wave 3; and (4) a higher score on a parental stress scale was predictive of fair/poor self-rated health at wave 3. The negative effects of low income on functional limitations attenuated to insignificance when waves 1 and 2 stress/life event measures were controlled for, but other socioeconomic disparities in health change remained sizable and significant when adjusted for exposure to stressors. The results support the hypothesis that differential exposure to stress and negative life events is one of many ways in which socioeconomic inequalities in health are produced in society.
552 citations
TL;DR: This review provides caveats concerning etiologically valid animal models of depression, focusing on characteristics of the depressive subtype being examined, and factors that contribute to the interindividual behavioral variability frequently evident in stressor-related behavioral paradigms.
528 citations
TL;DR: This model proposes a stress process in which chronic stressors in the environment give rise to a psychological and physiological stress response that ultimately affects health, which is supported using data from the Welfare, Children, and Families project.
Abstract: How do neighborhoods affect the health of residents? We propose that the impact of neighborhood disorder on self-reported health is mediated by psychological and physiological distress. We hypothesize a stress process in which chronic stressors in the environment give rise to a psychological and physiological stress response that ultimately affects health. The exogenous variable of interest is the neighborhood where disadvantaged persons live, which may expose them to chronic stressors in the form of crime, trouble, harassment, and other potentially distressing signs of disorder and decay. The mediator is the stress response that occurs in the body and brain. Of interest here is a psychological stress response in the form of fearful anxiety and depression, and a physiological stress response in the form of signs and symptoms of autonomic arousal, such as dizziness, chest pains, trouble breathing, nausea, upset stomach, and weakness. The outcome is poor health. This model is supported using data from the Welfare, Children, and Families project, a sample of 2,402 disadvantaged women in disadvantaged neighborhoods in Chicago, Boston, and San Antonio.
TL;DR: It is concluded that the human literature lacks the ability to separate the effects of the objective exposure to a stressor and the mother's subjective reaction, and the prospective Project Ice Storm, following 150 children who were exposed in utero to a natural disaster, is described.
Abstract: There exists considerable research on the effects of prenatal maternal stress on offspring. Animal studies, using random assignment to experimental and control groups, demonstrate the noxious effects of prenatal maternal stress on physical, behavioural and cognitive development. The generalizability of these results to humans is problematic given that cognitive attributions moderate reactions to stressors. In humans, researchers have relied upon maternal anxiety or exposure to life events as proxies for the stressors used with animals. Yet, the associations between maternal anxiety or potentially non-independent life events and problems in infants are confounded by genetic transmission of temperament from mother to child. We summarize the literature on prenatal maternal stress and infant cognitive development, leading to the conclusion that the human literature lacks the ability to separate the effects of the objective exposure to a stressor and the mother's subjective reaction. We then describe our prospective Project Ice Storm in which we are following 150 children who were exposed in utero to a natural disaster. We demonstrate significant effects of the objective severity of exposure on cognitive and language development at age two years with important moderating effects of the timing during pregnancy. The implications of our findings are discussed.
TL;DR: The caregiver can perceive both moderate burden and great satisfaction at the same time, and further studies may help to broaden the understanding of how to reduce the degree of burden whilst increasing the sense of satisfaction.
Abstract: Family caregivers experience both positive and negative reactions in caregiving situations. There has been considerably less published about the positive aspects, however. The general aim of this study was to explore a previously developed instrument to study rewards gained by caregivers and to determine the factors associated with satisfaction in family members caring for patients with dementia living at home. The study group consisted of 153 such family members. Standardized interview schedules exploring different background characteristics, and instruments for assessment of the degree of dementia in the patients and the caregivers' total burden and degree of satisfaction were used. Factorial analysis of the Caregiver's Assessment of Satisfactions Index was performed and it became more specific for conditions of dementia when it was reduced. Stressors as measured by the Caregiver Burden scale and satisfaction can coexist and assess different aspects of the caregiver's situation. The caregiver can perceive both moderate burden and great satisfaction at the same time, and further studies may help to broaden our understanding of how we can reduce the degree of burden whilst increasing the sense of satisfaction.
TL;DR: An array of deployment stressors that were content valid for both female and male Gulf War I military personnel was examined to elucidate gender differences in war-zone exposure and identify gender-based differential associations between stressors and mental health outcomes.
Abstract: Findings indicate that war-zone exposure has negative implications for the postdeployment adjustment of veterans; however, most studies have relied on limited conceptualizations of war-zone exposure and focused on male samples. In this study, an array of deployment stressors that were content valid for both female and male Gulf War I military personnel was examined to elucidate gender differences in war-zone exposure and identify gender-based differential associations between stressors and mental health outcomes. While women and men were exposed to both mission-related and interpersonal stressors and both stressor categories were associated with mental health outcomes, women reported more interpersonal stressors and these stressors generally had a stronger impact on women's than on men's mental health. Exceptions are described, and implications are discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors assess the relationship between number and type of past-year stressful experiences and alcohol consumption, with a focus on how gender, poverty, and psychological vulnerability moderate this association.
Abstract: Aims: To assess the relationship between number and type of past-year stressful experiences and alcohol consumption, with a focus on how gender, poverty, and psychological vulnerability moderate this association. Methods: Data from 26 946 US past- year drinkers 18 years of age and over, interviewed in the 2001-2002 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC), were used to construct multivariate linear regression models predicting six measures of drinking pattern and volume. Results: There was a consistent positive relationship between number of past-year stressors experienced and all measures of heavy drinking. Frequency of heavy (5+ drinks for men; 4+ drinks for women) drinking increased by 24% with each additional stressor reported by men and by 13% with each additional stressor reported by women. In contrast, the frequency of moderate drinking (<5 drinks for men; <4 drinks for women) decreased as stress levels increased. Job-related and legal sources of stress were more strongly associated with alcohol consumption than were social and health-related stress. Men showed a stronger association than women between the number of stressors and the most consumption measures; they also responded more strongly to the presence of any legal and job-related stress. Having an income below the poverty level intensified the effects of job-related stress, but having a mood or anxiety disorder did not affect any of the associations between stress and consumption. Conclusions: Stress does not so much lead individuals to drink more often as to substitute larger quantities of alcohol on the days when they do drink. Treatment and brief interventions aimed at problem drinkers might benefit from addressing the issue of tension alleviation and the development of alternative coping mechanisms.
TL;DR: The findings demonstrate the importance of considering the impact of exposure to long-term occupational stressors and confirm, in part, previous research that has demonstrated a different stress response pattern for men and women.
Abstract: This study examined the effects of stressor duration (deployment length) and stressor novelty (no prior deployment experience) on the psychological health of male and female military personnel returning from a peacekeeping deployment. The sample consisted of men (n 2,114) and women (n 1,225) surveyed for symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress. The results confirmed the hypotheses. Longer deployments and 1st-time deployments were associated with an increase in distress scores. However, the relationship between deployment length and increased distress was found only for male soldiers. The findings demonstrate the importance of considering the impact of exposure to long-term occupational stressors and confirm, in part, previous research that has demonstrated a different stress response pattern for men and women.
TL;DR: Cognitive appraisal and coping factors are explored as potential sources of individual differences in the neuroendocrinological stress response, and subsequently in mental health outcome.
TL;DR: Differences in severity and stressor appraisal accounted for education differences in psychological distress and physical health symptoms, and suggest the importance of considering variation across stressors in understanding sources of differential stressor vulnerability.
Abstract: Objectives. The present study examined the extent to which daily stressor severity and appraisals of the stressors accounted for socioeconomic disparities in health. Methods. Data from the National Study of Daily Experiences and the Midlife in the United States Survey were combined for the current analyses, resulting in 1,031 respondents who reported on 7,229 days. Results. Respondents without a high school degree experienced more severe stressors and appraised stressors as posing greater risk to their financial situation and to their self-concept than respondents with a high school or college degree. Differences in severity and stressor appraisal accounted for education differences in psychological distress and physical health symptoms. Discussion. Findings suggest the importance of considering variation across stressors, particularly implications for self-concept, in understanding sources of differential stressor vulnerability.
TL;DR: A conceptual model for components of the adult response to stressors is proposed, suggesting threat appraisal and defensive coping may play crucial roles in determining the neuroendocrine response to trauma with potential mental health consequences, particularly PTSD.
TL;DR: The results suggest that the types of stressors encountered in clinical situations can increase medical errors, even in highly experienced individuals.
TL;DR: Fertility-related cognitions and social support should receive attention when counselling women undergoing IVF or ICSI treatment, and the results indicated the importance of neuroticism in emotional response to a severe stressor.
Abstract: The predictive value of a comprehensive model with personality characteristics, stressor related cognitions, coping and social support was tested in a sample of 187 nonpregnant women The emotional response to the unsuccessful treatment was predicted out of vulnerability factors assessed before the start of the treatment The results indicated the importance of neuroticism as a vulnerability factor in emotional response to a severe stressor They also underlined the importance of helplessness and marital dissatisfaction as additional risk factors, and acceptance and perceived social support as additional protective factors, in the development of anxiety and depression after a failed fertility treatment From clinical point of view, these results suggest fertility-related cognitions and social support should receive attention when counselling women undergoing IVF or ICSI treatment
TL;DR: In this article, the role of psychosocial factors in susceptibility to upper respiratory infections has been examined, and it was shown that psychological stress is associated with increased risk for developing respiratory illness for persons intentionally exposed to a common cold virus, that the longer the duration of the stressor the greater the risk, and that stress association with susceptibility may be mediated by stressinduced disruption of the regulation of proinflammatory cytokines.
Abstract: This article provides a selected overview of 20 years of research on the role of psychosocial factors in susceptibility to upper respiratory infections. We present evidence from our laboratory that psychological stress is associated with increased risk for developing respiratory illness for persons intentionally exposed to a common cold virus, that the longer the duration of the stressor the greater the risk, and that stress association with susceptibility may be mediated by stress-induced disruption of the regulation of proinflammatory cytokines. We further provide evidence that social relationships (social integration and social support) are also associated with risk for respiratory illness: Social integration is associated with reduced risk irrespective of stress level and social support protects persons from the pathogenic influences of stress. Finally, we report recent evidence that lower levels of early childhood socio-economic status (SES) are associated with greater risk of viral-induced illness during adulthood, independent of adult SES.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors evaluated the effectiveness of stress management training in the treatment of the work-related effects of stress by comparing the role of modifying dysfunctional cognitions with the teaching of appropriate behavioural coping strategies.
Abstract: Transactional models of stress emphasize the importance of cognitive appraisal of potential stressors in the determination of the stress response. This appraisal can be modified by the use of techniques normally associated with cognitive therapy. The contribution of a specifically cognitive component when intervening in work-related stress has not been well evaluated to date. This research seeks to determine the effectiveness of stress management training in the treatment of the work-related effects of stress by comparing the role of modifying dysfunctional cognitions with the teaching of appropriate behavioural coping strategies. Participants were allocated to one of two intervention conditions or to a waiting list control group. Those in the intervention conditions received group stress management either with the focus on delivering cognitive therapy techniques or with the focus on behavioural coping skills. Measures of general health were taken at the beginning and end of intervention and at 3-month follow-up. Participants in the cognitive therapy groups who were reporting symptoms of general ill-health at the start of the intervention showed a significant improvement at follow-up. Cognitive therapy appears to have been an effective intervention in work-related stress. Those in the behavioural group showed a smaller but still clinically effective improvement. Results are discussed in terms of methodological issues and implications for future research. It is suggested that changes in cognitive appraisal may need to be developed.
TL;DR: It is suggested that stress-related growth is more than positive reappraisal and the absence of negative affect, and that social resources may facilitate greater growth.
Abstract: Despite the increasing interest in the perceived benefits or growth resulting from stress and illness, there has been little investigation of the correlates of this stress-related growth, particularly among HIV-infected individuals. Following the Schaefer and Moos model (1992;1998), the association of affective states, coping, stressor characteristics, individual resources, and social resources with stress-related growth was examined among 138 women living with HIV/AIDS. Most women (63%) reported high levels of growth. Multivariate analyses revealed that positive reappraisal coping, and emotional support were associated with higher levels of growth, and depressive affect was negatively associated with growth. In addition, African American women reported more stress-related growth than that reported by White women. Stressor characteristics (i.e., disease stage, number of physical symptoms, and time since HIV diagnosis), self-esteem, perceived control, practical support, and positive affect were not associated with growth. These findings suggest that stress-related growth is more than positive reappraisal and the absence of negative affect, and that social resources may facilitate greater growth.
TL;DR: The data indicate that males and female respond similarly to learning opportunities and stressful experience before and during puberty; it is in adulthood that sex differences and the opposite responses to stress arise.
TL;DR: In this paper, the interactive effects of race and gender in a multi-dimensional assessment of police occupational stress were examined in a large urban police department was divided into four subgroups: White males, African-American males, White females, and African American females.
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the relationship between stress and coping strategies among 283 college students and found that students employed mainly task-and emotion-oriented coping strategies, and that students' age was a significant factor in determining their coping behavior.
Abstract: The study examined the relationships between stress and coping strategies among 283 college students. Participants completed questionnaires relating to their stress perceptions, actual academic loads and their coping strategies. The main objective was to explore the effect of stress perceptions on coping behavior while accounting for objective loads and demographic parameters. Multilevel analyses revealed several indications: first, students' coping behavior could be predicted from their reported stress perceptions and their appraisals of their academic-related stress levels; second, students employed mainly task- and emotion-oriented coping strategies; and finally, students' age was a significant factor in determining their coping behavior. Our findings suggest that, in stressful environments, each of the coping strategies functions independently, with the type of strategy adopted depending largely on the specific profile of each student's stress perceptions and demographic characteristics. ********** This study examined the relationships between stress and coping strategies among college students. Participants completed questionnaires relating to their stress perceptions, actual academic loads and their coping strategies. The main objective was to explore the effect of stress perceptions on coping behavior, while also accounting for objective loads and demographic parameters. Sources of Academic Stress and its Likely Impact on Students College students perceive academic life as stressful and demanding (Wan, 1992; Hammer, Grigsby & Woods, 1998) and report experiencing emotional and cognitive reactions to this stress, especially due to external pressures and self-imposed expectations (Misra & McKean, 2000). They report on numerous stressors during term-time, including academic demands and social adjustment. Stress-inducing academic demands include grade competition; lack of time and issues relating to time or task management (Macan, Shahani, Dipboye & Phillips, 1990; Trueman., & Hartley, 1996); the need to adapt to new learning environments (van-Rooijens, 1986) in terms of the increased complexity of the material to be learned and the greater time and effort required to do so; and the need to constantly self-regulate and to develop better thinking skills, including learning to use specific learning techniques (Fram & Bonvillian, 2001). Emotional stress, such as anxiety, students' appraisal of the stressfulness of the role's demands and of their ability to cope with those demands (Wan, 1992), are also connected to academic stress. Another category that evokes stress is social adjustment, particularly adjusting to university life (Saracoglu, Minden, & Wilchesky, 1989; Abouserie, 1994) and separating from family and friends. Finally, other constraints include financial pressure (Miech & Shanahan, 2000) and other technical difficulties. Thus, academic stressors cover the whole area of learning and achieving in and adjusting to a new environment in which a great deal of content must be assimilated in a seemingly inadequate period of time. Since students endeavor to adapt themselves to academic life, positive adaptation and well-being factors are associated with fewer experienced stress symptoms (Van-Rooijen, 1986; Tobin & Carson, 1994). Coping Strategies Coping strategies are assumed to have two primary functions: managing the problem causing stress and governing emotions relating to those stressors (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980, 1986; Lazarus & Folkman 1984). Interpreting their results in terms of this assumption, most studies confirm two major related findings. The first is that a situation is evaluated as stressful, in part, whenever the individual perceives a lower ability to cope with it. The second finding is that stressors perceived as controllable elicit more proactive coping mechanisms (Karasek & Theorell, 1990), while those perceived as uncontrollable elicit more avoidance strategies (Anshel & Kaissidis, 1997; Compas, Malcarne & Fondacaro. …
TL;DR: In this article, the authors evaluated the role of gender in the level of workplace stress and stressors of particular relevance to working women, including multiple roles, lack of career progress and discrimination and stereotyping.
Abstract: Objective The aim of this review was to evaluate research relating to the role of gender in the level of workplace stress. A further aim was to review literature relating to stressors of particular relevance to working women. These stressors included, multiple roles, lack of career progress and discrimination and stereotyping.Design Systematic review.Method Major databases were searched in order to identify studies investigating gender and workplace stress. A range of research designs were included and no restrictions were made on the basis of the occupations of the participants.Results Much of the research indicated that women reported higher levels of stress compared to men. However, several studies reported no difference between the genders. Furthermore, the evidence for the adverse effects of multiple roles, lack of career progress and discrimination and stereotyping was inconsistent.Conclusion The current review concluded that the evidence regarding the role of gender in workplace stress and stressor...
TL;DR: Results show that stress-induced increases in salivary cortisol levels impaired delayed free recall of emotionally arousing material in the morning group, but not in the afternoon group, and suggest that the experimental context, i.e., time of day at which the experiment occurs, modulates the effects of stress on human declarative memory.
Abstract: We measured the effects of a stressful experience on memory for emotionally arousing and neutral material learned after exposure to a stressor which induces a significant increase in corticosteroid stress hormones. Because memory performance can be influenced by circadian changes in corticosteroid levels, subjects were tested either in the morning or in the afternoon. Nineteen healthy men (9 in the morning group and 10 in the afternoon group) were submitted to a psychological stress task before viewing a story composed of emotionally negative and neutral segments, while another 20 healthy males (10 in the morning group and 10 in the afternoon group) viewed the story without being exposed to the psychological stressor. Salivary cortisol levels were measured before and after the stressor. Memory performance was assessed by a one week post learning delayed recall. Results show that stress-induced increases in salivary cortisol levels impaired delayed free recall of emotionally arousing material in the morning group, but not in the afternoon group. There was no effect of stress on memory for neutral material. Altogether, these findings suggest that stressing participants in the morning, at a time of high circulating levels of corticosteroids, over stimulated the corticosteroid receptors in the brain, impairing declarative memory for emotionally arousing material unrelated to the stressor. These findings suggest that the experimental context, i.e., time of day at which the experiment occurs, the nature of the to-be-remembered material (remembering the stressful event itself or material unrelated to the stressor) and the valence of the to-be-remembered material (emotionally arousing vs. neutral), modulates the effects of stress on human declarative memory.
TL;DR: The results contribute to the understanding of the complex etiological processes involved in African American birth outcomes and set the stage for further research into their reproductive health status.
Abstract: Background: The persistently higher rates of adverse birth outcomes among African American women are a major public health concern.Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore the relations among psychosocial stress, socioeconomic status, and birth outcomes in African American women.Methods: A prospective survey research design was used to measure stress exposure, subjective responses to stressors, including intrusive effects of life events, and medical and sociodemographic variables in a sample of 178 pregnant African American women. Birth outcomes were obtained from medical charts.Results: Life event exposure was high, but levels of perceived stress and negative emotional responses were low to moderate. Lower income African American women reported significantly greater pregnancy undesirability than higher income African American women. Educational attainment was not related to any of the stress variables, and neither income nor educational attainment was significantly related to birth outcomes. Number of stressful life events significantly predicted 3% additional variance in gestational age after controlling for potential confounders. Psychosocial stress variables altogether accounted for 7% additional variance in gestational age-adjusted birth weight, with event distress and intrusive thoughts concerning severe life events emerging as the significant independent stress predictors.Conclusions: These results contribute to our understanding of the complex etiological processes involved in African American birth outcomes and set the stage for further research into their reproductive health status.